第三单元 语言学笔记

3.1Whatisword?Wordisaunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.词是个 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 达单位，不管是在口语还是在 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf 面语中，说母语的人对词有种普遍的直觉识别能力。3.1.1Threesensesof“word”“词”的三种含义aphysicaldefinableunit:是自然的有界限单位thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms是支配一组形式的共同因素。Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme.词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。Lexicon:alistofallthewordsinalanguageassignedtovariouslexicalcategoriesandprovidedwithsemanticinterpretation.lexeme(词位):Aseparateunitofmeaning,usuallyintheformofaword(e.g.“doginthemanger”)Lexeme-----ispostulatedastheabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts.词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。e.g.boyboys;check,checks,checking,checked;write,writes,wrote,writing,written;fat,fatter,fattestboy,check,write,andfatarethelexemes.agrammaticalunit是一个语法单位。e.g.Itiskindofyou,MissHoe.Everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence.3.1.2Identificationofwords词的识别1.stability稳定性Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure,thatis,theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement,comparedwiththerelativepositionalmobilityoftheconstituentsofsentencesinthehierarchy.Butitisallrightforustorearrangetheconstituentsinasentencetoacertaindegree.所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就其内部结构来说，跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但是句子成分却可以做一定程度的重新排列。e.g.Thechairmanlookedattheaudience.主席看观众   Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.观众看主席。2.Relativeuninterruptibility相对的连续性Byuninterruptibility,wemeannewelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.Norisallowedtousepausesbetweenthepartsofaword.连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。3.Aminimumfreeform最小的自由形式 ItwasfirstsuggestedbyLeonardBloomfield.Headvocatedtreatingsentenceas“themaximum freeform”andword”theminimumfreeform”,wordbeingthesmallestunitthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutterance.由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作“最大的自由形式”，把词看作“最小的自由形式”。词是能独立构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。3.1.3 Classificationofwords 词的分类1. Variablevs.invariablewords可变化词和不变词 Wordscanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheirvariability.根据可变性可以对词进行分类。Invariablewords-----onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.Thus,eachorderedseriesconstitutesparadigm.关于可变化词，人们可以找到一系列整齐而有 规则 编码规则下载淘宝规则下载天猫规则下载麻将竞赛规则pdf麻将竞赛规则pdf 的词形，它们在语法上是不同的；另一方面，词的一部分相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。Invariablewords------refertothosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.不变词指since,when,seldom,through,hello这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。1. Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords语法词和词汇词 Intermsofthemeaningexpressedbywords,theycanbeclassifiedintogrammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords.就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。 Grammaticalwords/functionwords------thosewhichexpressgrammaticalmeanings,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns,aregrammaticalwords.(表达语法意义的是语法词,如连词,介词,冠词,代词.) Lexicalwords/contentwords--------thosewhichhavelexicalmeanings,thatis,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,relexicalwords.(具有词汇意义指物质,动作和性质的是词汇词,如名词,动词,形容词,副词.)Asthelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguagewhilethegrammaticalonesservetolinkitsdifferentpartstogether,thelexicalwordsarealsoknownascontentwordsandgrammaticalonesfunctionwords.词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。1. Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords封闭类词和开放类词Thedistinctionofgrammaticalwordsandlexicalwordsleadstodistinctionof“closed-class”wordsand“open-class”words.语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。Closed-classword(封闭词类):------awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.(封闭词类的成员数目是确定的,有限的.新成员不会有规律地增加.例如代词,介词,连词,冠词等.)open-classword(开放类词):-------awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.(开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的,无限的.例如名词,动词,形容词和多数副词.) Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.1. Wordclass词类Classifywordseitherbyanalyzingthevariousgrammatical,semantic,andphonologicalpropertiesofthewordsinlanguage,orbygroupingthemintoclassesonthebasisofformalsimilaritiesinPARTOFSPEECHintraditionalgrammar.要划分词类，更现实的 方法 快递客服问题件处理详细方法山木方法pdf计算方法pdf华与华方法下载八字理论方法下载 是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，语义特征和音系特征，或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。在传统语法中词类partofspeech是封闭的。 Particles、Auxiliaries、Pro-form、Determiners助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词3.2Theformationofword 词的形成 MorphemeandMorphology 语素和形态学Thesmallestcomponentsareknownasmorphemes.Buttheythemselvescannotfurtheranalyze. 最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。Morpheme----isthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.(就表达和内容之间的关系看,语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义.)Morpheme:theminimalunitofmeaning,thebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology. 词素是形态学研究的最基本的单位。Morphemeisthesmallestmeaning-bearingunitoflanguage.词素是单词的最小的有意义的组成部分。Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and”-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Therefore,amorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.Morphology----istheimmediateconcernof abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。Whatismorphology?什么是形态学？Morphologyisthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphology,andlexical/derivationalmorphology.Inflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflectionsandlexical/derivationalmorphologystudiestheword-formation.形态学是语法学的一个分支，研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。形态学有两个分支：曲折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。曲折形态学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；派生形态学研究单词的构成和词义的表达。Thetwofields ：  Inflectionalmorphology曲折形态学:thestudyofinflections  Derivationalmorphology:派生形态学thestudyofword-formation                                       Suffix1. freemorphemeandboundmorpheme自由语素和粘着语素Morphemescanbeclassifiedintotwotypesintermsoftheircapacityofoccurringalone.根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类。freemorpheme(自由语素):-------Thosemorphemeswhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,arefreemorphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成词的,叫做自由语素.)boundmorpheme(粘着语素):-sindogs,-alinnational,anddis-ndisclose,cannotoccuralone.Theymustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme,andarecalledboundmorphemes.(dogs中的-s,national中的-al,disclose中的dis-不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素.)Boundmorphemes: morphemeswhichcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwords（1）root(词根):thebasefromofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity. Thatistosay,itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.(词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根。Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素。Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.词根，粘着语素的一种，往往被看作是一个单词的一个部分。它本身有清楚，确定的意义，却不能被单独使用，而只能与另外一个词根结合在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在一起才能形成一个单词。（2）affix(词缀):thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffix,andinfix,dependingontheirpositionwithreferencetotherootorstemoftheword.语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。 Prefix前缀----prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword. dis-;un-;mis-para-;mini-;前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。Exception:be-;en-;em-; Addedtoadjectivesornounstheyturnthewordsintoverbs.Forexample:little----belittle;large---enlarge;rich---enrich;body---embodySuffix后缀:-----suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems;theymodifythemeaningoftheorginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.-ly;-ness;-tion;-ise;后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的意义，并且大所数情况下改变词性。Infix中缀: foot/feet;goose/geese;–oo-;-ee-;Somelanguagesalsohaveinfixes,affixmorphemesthatareinsertedintorootorstemmorphemestodividethemintotwoparts.Tatawa  “apersonwhowilllaugh”Tumatawa  “apersonwhoislaughing”Ngitad      “dark”Ngumitad    “tobedark”Inthislanguage,theinfix–um-isinsertedafterthefirstconsonantofanounoradjective.(fikas-“strong”  fumikas--“tobestrong”（3）Stem(词干):anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.(词干是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合.)astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.派生词缀可加在已存在的形式词上形成的一个新词，原来存在的形式词被称为词干。词干可以是粘着词根，自由词素和一个派生词。3.Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix曲折词缀和派生词缀Inflection/inflexion(屈折变化):------themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.(屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现,如数,人称,有定性,体和格,屈折词缀不会改变所附加词语的语法类.)Inflectionalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemeswhichmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.E.g.workers, children; walking, walked; biggest; John’sderivation(派生词):------themanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes. Differentfromcompounds,derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.(通过增加派生词素来表明词干与词缀关系的构词法。跟复合词不同,派生词则能表明词根和词缀之间的关系.)Derivationalmorpheme:akindofboundmorphemes,addedtoexistingformstocreatenewwords.Therearethreekindsaccordingtopositioninthenewwords,:prefix,suffixandinfix. Inflectionandwordformation屈折变化和词的形成 wordformation词的形成Word–formation,initsrestrictedsense,referstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andthedeviationaltype(derivation).词的形成，从严格意义上讲，指词形变化的过程，这些词形变化是标志词项之间的关系的。这可以进一步分为复合类（复合词）和派生类（派生词）两种。1. Compound复合词Compound,onethewhole,referstothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.整体上说，复合词指那些由一个以上的词汇语素构成的词，或者由两个独立的词连接起来构成新的形式。Incompounds,thetwolexicalmorphemescanbeofdifferentwordclasses.复合词中，两个词汇语素可能是不同的词类。compound(复合词):polymorphemicwords(多语素词)whichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,such aspaymaster,moonwalk,babysist,godfather,sunflower,classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.(组成成分都是自由语素的多语素词.)B．Derivation派生词Derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.派生词能表明词根和词缀之间的关系。Aphonemeisthesmallestunitofsound;amorphemeisthesmallestunitingrammar音位是语音中最小单位；语素是语法中的最小单位。Morphonology形态音系学;morphophonemic 形态音位学Asinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.单个的音位可以代表一个语素，但他们并不总是一致的。1. Morphemicstructureandphonologicalstructure语素结构和音位结构Morphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstructuresotherthanasinglephoneme.语素也可以不用单个音位表示，而用音位结构表示。Thesyllabic(phonological)structureofawordanditsmorphemic(grammatical)structuredonotnecessarilycorrespond.一个词的音节（音位）结构和语素结构不一定是一致的。Compounding:aprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsintoonelexicalunit.blackboard  godfather  baby-sit cross-culturalDerivation:theprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotherootsorwords.  e.g.finalize  widen  hospitalize  clockwise (顺时针)Blending混成法:aprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.blending(混成法):arelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.(混成法是一种相对复杂的混合形式,由两个单词混合而成,一般是一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来,或者是把两个单词的开头部分连接起来.)transistor(transfer+resister)晶体管;smog(smoke+fog)烟雾;positron(positive+electron)正电子; boatel(boat+hotel)水上旅馆；brunch(breakfast+lunch)早午餐； smaze(smog+haze);telecast(television+broadcast)电视广播;motel(motor+hotel)；cremains(cremated+remains)骨灰；telex(teleprinter+exchange)电报，电传打字机；modem(modulatordemodulator)调制解调器；anacom(analog+computer)分析计算机；digicom(digital+computer)数码计算机；insulac(insulating++lacquer)绝缘材料Fusion溶合法，混成法的一种,eg.Stample(trample+stampon);crackdown(crackup+breakdown)Abbreviation缩写词:ashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform.       e.g.TV(television)Dr(doctor)hr(hour) ft(footorfeet)clipping截断法:akindofabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases。Anewwordiscreatedby1. Cuttingthefinalpart(orwithaslightvariation)截掉后面的部分（或有些小的变化）Memorandum---memo advertisement---ad; bicycle----bike;  professor—prof  fanatic--fan1. Cuttingtheinitialpart删去开头的部分Telephone---phone;omnibus—bus;helicopter—copter; aeroplane---plane1. Cuttingboththeinitialandfinalpartsaccordingly删去开头和结尾相应的部分       e.g.electronicmail---e-mail highfidelity---hi-fi;influenza—flu;refrigerator---fridgeAcronym缩略语:awordcreatedbycombiningtheinitiallettersofanumberofwords.acronym(缩略词):ismadeupformthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.(缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的,而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语.)e.g.UNESCO联合国教科文组织； APEC CD  laser radar(radio  detectingandranging)；WB世界银行 Initialism:VOA BBC WTO CIA   EEC欧洲经济共同体；Back-formation逆构词法:aprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword.back-formation(逆构词法):anabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage.(构词法中一种不规则的类型,即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单C. loanshift(转移借词):aprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.(转移借词的意义是借用的,但是形式是来自本国语.)D.Loantranslation(翻译借词):aspecialtypeofborrowing,inwhicheachmorphemeorwordistranslatedintheequivalentmorphemeorwordinanotherlanguage.(翻译借词是一种特殊的借用,每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或单词对等地翻译过来的.) Claque仿造词，词删去想象中的词缀,由此造出一个较短的单词.Televise(fromtelevision)donate(fromdonation)enthuse(fromenthusiasm)Analogicalcreation类推构词Borrowing借词:thetakingoverofwordsfromotherlanguages  A. loanword(借词):aprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation,insomecases,tothephonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.(借词的形式和意义都是借用的,有时为了适应新语言的音位系统,可以有些细小的改变.)B. .loanblend(混合借词):aprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.(指借词的一部分来自本国语,另一部分来自外来语,但是意义全都是借来的.) Phonologicalchange音位变化Changesinsoundsleadtochangesinform(1)Vowelsoundchange: GreatVowelShift inhistory(2) loss(脱落)----:thelossofsoundcanfirstrefertothedisappearanceoftheverysoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystem.(语音脱落首先可以指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失.)(3)soundaddition添加(4)metathesis换位(5)assimilation(同化作用):referstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.(指由于邻近语音的影响而产生的语音变化,更明确的叫法是”接触同化”或“邻近同化.”)  Morpho-syntacticalchange形态句法变化 Morphologicalchange 形态变化 Syntacticalchange 句法变化Semanticchange语义变ThechangeofmeaningofawordBroadening词义扩大Narrowing词义缩小Meaningshift词义转移:aprocessinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning.Classshift(conversion变换)词性变换:zero-derivation零派生Elevationanddegradationfolketymology(俗词源):achangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.(指词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解,或者由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推,导致了新的意义的产生.)3.3.5Orthographicchange拼写的变化