2021年化学工程与工艺专业英语中英文翻译

HYPERLINK""Unit1ChemicalIndustry化学工业Beforereadingthetextbelow,trytoanswerfollowingquestion:Whendidthemodernchemicalindustrystart?Canyougiveadefinitionforthechemicalindustry?Whatarethecontributionwhichthechemicalindustryhasmadetomeetandsatisfyourneeds?Isthechemicalindustrycapital-orlabor-intensive?Why?1.OriginsoftheChemicalIndustryAlthoughtheuseofchemicalsdatesbacktotheancientcivilizations,theevolutionofwhatweknowasthemodernchemicalindustrystartedmuchmorerecently.ItmaybeconsideredtohavebegunduringtheIndustrialRevolution,about1800,anddevelopedtoprovidechemicalsroeusebyotherindustries.Examplesarealkaliforsoapmaking,bleachingpowderforcotton,andsilicaandsodiumcarbonateforglassmaking.Itwillbenotedthattheseareallinorganicchemicals.Theorganicchemicalsindustrystartedinthe1860swiththeexploitationofWilliamHenryPerkin’sdiscoveryifthefirstsyntheticdyestuff—mauve.AtthestartofthetwentiethcenturytheemphasisonresearchontheappliedaspectsofchemistryinGermanyhadpaidoffhandsomely,andby1914hadresultedintheGermanchemicalindustryhaving75%oftheworldmarketinchemicals.ThiswasbasedonthediscoveryofnewdyestuffsplusthedevelopmentofboththecontactprocessforsulphuricacidandtheHaberprocessforammonia.Thelaterrequiredamajortechnologicalbreakthroughthatofbeingabletocarryoutchemicalreactionsunderconditionsofveryhighpressureforthefirsttime.TheexperiencegainedwiththiswastostandGermanyingoodstead,particularlywiththerapidlyincreaseddemandfornitrogen-basedcompounds(ammoniumsaltsforfertilizersandnitricacidforexplosivesmanufacture)withtheoutbreakofworldwarⅠin1914.Thisinitiatedprofoundchangeswhichcontinuedduringtheinter-waryears(1918-1939).化学工业起源尽管化学品使用能够追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓现代化学工业发展却是很近代（才开始）。能够认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在18，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料产业。比如制肥皂所用碱，棉布生产所用漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用硅及Na2CO3.我们会注意到全部这些全部是无机物。有机化学工业开始是在十九世纪六十年代以WilliamHenryPerkin发觉第一个合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志。20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面关键研究，到19，德国化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%份额。这要归因于新染料发觉和硫酸接触法生产和氨哈伯生产工艺发展。以后者需要较大技术突破使得化学反应第一次能够在很高压力条件下进行。这方面所取得成绩对德国很有帮助。尤其是因为19第一次世界大仗爆发，对以氮为基础化合物需求飞速增加。这种深刻改变一直连续到战后（1918-1939）。datebaketo/from:回溯到dated:过时，陈旧standsb.ingoodstead:对。。。很有帮助Since1940thechemicalindustryhasgrownataremarkablerate,althoughthishasslowedsignificantlyinrecentyears.Thelion’sshareofthisgrowthhasbeenintheorganicchemicalssectorduetothedevelopmentandgrowthofthepetrochemicalsareasince1950s.Theexplosivesgrowthinpetrochemicalsinthe1960sand1970swaslargelyduetotheenormousincreaseindemandforsyntheticpolymerssuchaspolyethylene,polypropylene,nylon,polyestersandepoxyresins.1940年以来，化学工业一直以引人注目标速度飞速发展。尽管这种发展速度多年来已大大减慢。化学工业发展因为1950年以来石油化学领域研究和开发大部分在有机化学方面取得。石油化工在60年代和70年代迅猛发展关键是因为大家对于合成高聚物如聚乙烯、聚丙烯、尼龙、聚脂和环氧树脂需求巨大增加。Thechemicalindustrytodayisaverydiversesectorofmanufacturingindustry,withinwhichitplaysacentralrole.Itmakesthousandsofdifferentchemicalswhichthegeneralpubliconlyusuallyencounterasendorconsumerproducts.Theseproductsarepurchasedbecausetheyhavetherequiredpropertieswhichmakethemsuitableforsomeparticularapplication,e.g.anon-stickcoatingforpansoraweedkiller.Thuschemicalsareultimatelysoldfortheeffectsthattheyproduce.今天化学工业已经是制造业中有着很多分支部门，而且在制造业中起着关键作用。它生产了数千种不一样化学产品，而大家通常只接触到终端产品或消费品。这些产品被购置是因为她们含有一些性质适合（大家）部分尤其用途，比如，用于盆不粘涂层或一个杀虫剂。这些化学产品归根到底是因为它们能产生作用而被购置。2.DefinitionoftheChemicalIndustryAttheturnofthecenturytherewouldhavebeenlittledifficultyindefiningwhatconstitutedthechemicalindustrysinceonlyaverylimitedrangeofproductswasmanufacturedandthesewereclearlychemicals,e.g.,alkali,sulphuricacid.Atpresent,however,manyintermediatestoproductsproduced,fromrawmaterialslikecrudeoilthrough(insomecases)manyintermediatestoproductswhichmaybeuseddirectlyasconsumergoods,orreadilyconvertedintothem.Thedifficultyconesindecidingatwhichpointinthissequencetheparticularoperationceasestobepartofthechemicalindustry’ssphereofactivities.Toconsideraspecificexampletoillustratethisdilemma,emulsionpaintsmaycontainpoly(vinylchloride)/poly(vinylacetate).Clearly,synthesisofvinylchloride(oracetate)anditspolymerizationarechemicalactivities.However,ifformulationandmixingofthepaint,includingthepolymer,iscarriedoutbyabranchofthemultinationalchemicalcompanywhichmanufacturedtheingredients,isthisstillpartofthechemicalindustryofdoesitmowbelonginthedecoratingindustry?化学工业定义在本世纪初，要定义什么是化学工业是不太困难，因为那时所生产化学品是很有限，而且是很清楚化学品，比如，烧碱，硫酸。然而现在有数千种化学产品被生产，从部分原料物质像用于制备很多半成品石油，到能够直接作为消费品或很轻易转化为消费品商品。困难在于怎样决定在部分特殊生产过程中哪一个步骤不再属于化学工业活动范围。举一个特殊例子来描述一下这种困境。乳剂漆含有聚氯乙烯/聚醋酸乙烯。显然，氯乙烯（或醋酸乙烯）合成和聚合是化学活动。然而，假如这种漆，包含高聚物，它配制和混合是由一家制造配料跨国化学企业完成话，那它仍然是属于化学工业呢还是应该归属于装饰工业中去呢？Itisthereforeapparentthat,becauseofitsdiversityofoperationsandcloselinksinmanyareaswithotherindustries,thereisnosimpledefinitionofthechemicalindustry.Insteadeachofficialbodywhichcollectsandpublishesstatisticsonmanufacturingindustrywillhaveitsdefinitionastowhichoperationsareclassifiedasthechemicalindustry.Itisimportanttobearthisinmindwhencomparingstatisticalinformationwhichisderivedfromseveralsources.所以，很显著，因为化学工业经营种类很多并在很多领域和其它工业有亲密联络，所以不能对它下一个简单定义。相反每一个搜集和出版制造工业统计数据官方机构全部会对怎样届定哪一类操作为化学工业有自己定义。当比较来自不一样路径统计资料时，记住这点是很关键。3.TheNeedforChemicalIndustryThechemicalindustryisconcernedwithconvertingrawmaterials,suchascrudeoil,firstlyintochemicalintermediatesandthenintoatremendousvarietyofotherchemicals.Thesearethenusedtoproduceconsumerproducts,whichmakeourlivesmorecomfortableor,insomecasessuchaspharmaceuticalproduces,helptomaintainourwell-beingorevenlifeitself.Ateachstageoftheseoperationsvalueisaddedtotheproduceandprovidedthisaddedexceedstherawmaterialplusprocessingcoststhenaprofitwillbemadeontheoperation.Itistheaimofchemicalindustrytoachievethis.对化学工业需要化学工业包含到原材料转化，如石油首先转化为化学中间体，然后转化为数量众多其它化学产品。这些产品再被用来生产消费品，这些消费品能够使我们生活更为舒适或作药品维持人类健康或生命。在生产过程每一个阶段，全部有价值加到产品上面，只要这些附加价值超出原材料和加工成本之和，这个加工就产生了利润。而这正是化学工业要达成目标。Itmayseemstrangeintextbookthisonetoposethequestion“doweneedachemicalindustry?”Howevertryingtoanswerthisquestionwillprovide(ⅰ)anindicationoftherangeofthechemicalindustry’sactivities,(ⅱ)itsinfluenceonourlivesineverydayterms,and(ⅲ)howgreatissociety’sneedforachemicalindustry.Ourapproachinansweringthequestionwillbetoconsidertheindustry’scontributiontomeetingandsatisfyingourmajorneeds.Whatarethese?Clearlyfood(anddrink)andhealthareparamount.Otherwhichweshallconsiderintheirturnareclothingand(briefly)shelter,leisureandtransport.在这么一本教科书中提出：“我们需要化学工业吗？”这么一个问题是不是有点奇怪呢？然而，先回复下面多个问题将给我们提供部分信息：（1）化学工业活动范围，（2）化学工业对我们日常生活影响，（3）社会对化学工业需求有多大。在回复这些问题时候我们思绪将要考虑化学工业在满足和改善我们关键需求方面所做贡献。是些什么需求呢？很显然，食物和健康是放在第一位。其它我们要考虑按次序是衣物、住所、休闲和旅行。(1)Food.Thechemicalindustrymakesamajorcontributiontofoodproductioninatleastthreeways.Firstly,bymakingavailablelargequantitiesofartificialfertilizerswhichareusedtoreplacetheelements(mainlynitrogen,phosphorusandpotassium)whichareremovedasnutrientsbythegrowingcropsduringmodernintensivefarming.Secondly,bymanufacturingcropprotectionchemicals,i.e.,pesticides,whichmarkedlyreducetheproportionofthecropsconsumedbypests.Thirdly,byproducingveterinaryproductswhichprotectlivestockfromdiseaseorcuretheirinfections.(1)食物。化学工业对粮食生产所做巨大贡献最少有三个方面。第一，提供大量能够取得肥料以补充因为密集耕作被农作物生长时所带走营养成份。（关键是氮、磷和钾）。第二，生产农作物保护产品，如杀虫剂，它能够显著降低害虫所消耗粮食数量。第三，生产兽药保护家禽免遭疾病或其它感染侵害。(2)Health.Weareallawareofthemajorcontributionwhichthepharmaceuticalsectoroftheindustryhasmadetohelpkeepusallhealthy,e.g.bycuringbacterialinfectionswithantibiotics,andevenextendinglifeitself,e.g.ß–blockerstolowerbloodpressure.（2）健康。我们全部很了解化学工业中制药这一块在维护我们身体健康甚至延长寿命方面所做出巨大贡献，比如，用抗生素诊疗细菌感染，用β-抗血栓降低血压。(3)Clothing.Theimprovementinpropertiesofmodernsyntheticfibersoverthetraditionalclothingmaterials(e.g.cottonandwool)hasbeenquiteremarkable.Thusshirts,dressesandsuitsmadefrompolyesterslikeTeryleneandpolyamideslikeNylonarecrease-resistant,machine-washable,anddrip-dryornon-iron.Theyarealsocheaperthannaturalmaterials.衣物。在传统衣服面料上，现代合成纤维性质改善也是很显著。用聚脂如涤纶或聚酰胺如尼龙所制作T恤、上衣、衬衫抗皱、可机洗，晒干自挺或免烫，也比天然面料廉价。Paralleldevelopmentsinthediscoveryofmodernsyntheticdyesandthetechnologyto“bond”themtothefiberhasresultedinatremendousincreaseinthevarietyofcolorsavailabletothefashiondesigner.Indeedtheynowspanalmosteverycolorandhueofthevisiblespectrum.Indeedifasuitableshadeisnotavailable,structuralmodificationofanexistingdyetoachievethiscanreadilybecarriedout,providedthereisasatisfactorymarketfortheproduct.和此同时，现代合成染料开发和染色技术改善使得时装设计师们有大量色彩能够利用。确实她们几乎利用了可见光谱中全部色调和色素。实际上假如某种颜色没有现成，只要这种产品确有市场，就能够很轻易地经过对现有色彩进行结构调整而取得。Othermajoradvancesinthisspherehavebeenincolor-fastness,i.e.,resistancetothedyebeingwashedoutwhenthegarmentiscleaned.这一领域中另部分关键进展是不褪色，即在洗涤衣物时染料不会被洗掉。(4)Shelter,leisureandtransport.Intermsofshelterthecontributionofmodernsyntheticpolymershasbeensubstantial.Plasticsaretendingtoreplacetraditionalbuildingmaterialslikewoodbecausetheyarelighter,maintenance-free(i.e.theyareresistanttoweatheringanddonotneedpainting).Otherpolymers,e.g.urea-formaldehydeandpolyurethanes,areimportantinsulatingmaterialsforreducingheatlossesandhencereducingenergyusage.（4）住所，休闲和旅游。讲到住所方面现代合成高聚物贡献是巨大。塑料正在替换像木材一类传统建筑材料，因为它们更轻，免维护（即它们能够抵御风化，不需油漆）。另部分高聚物，比如，脲甲醛和聚脲，是很关键绝缘材料能够降低热量损失所以降低能量损耗。Plasticsandpolymershavemadeaconsiderableimpactonleisureactivitieswithapplicationsrangingfromall-weatherartificialsurfacesforathletictracks,footballpitchesandtenniscourtstonylonstringsforracquetsanditemslikegolfballsandfootballsmadeentirelyfromsyntheticmaterials.塑料和高聚物应用对休闲活动有很关键影响，从体育跑道全天候人造篷顶，足球和网球经纬线，到球拍尼龙线还有高尔夫球元件，还有制造足球合成材料。Likewisethechemicalindustry’scontributiontotransportovertheyearshasledtomajorimprovements.Thusdevelopmentofimprovedadditiveslikeanti-oxidantsandviscosityindeximprovesforengineoilhasenabledroutineservicingintervalstoincreasefrom3000to6000to1miles.Researchanddevelopmentworkhasalsoresultedinimprovedlubricatingoilsandgreases,andbetterbrakefluids.Yetagainthecontributionofpolymersandplasticshasbeenverystrikingwiththeproportionofthetotalautomobilederivedfromthesematerials—dashboard,steeringwheel,seatpaddingandcoveringetc.—nowexceeding40%.多年来化学工业对旅游方面所作贡献也有很大提升。部分添加剂如抗氧化剂开发和发动机油粘度指数改善使汽车日产维修期限从3000英里延长到6000英里再到1英里。研发工作还改善了润滑油和油脂性能，并得到了愈加好刹车油。塑料和高聚物对整个汽车业贡献百分比是惊人，源于这些材料—挡板，轮胎，坐垫和涂层等等—超出40%。Soitisquiteapparentevenfromabrieflookatthechemicalindustry’scontributiontomeetingourmajorneedsthatlifeintheworldwouldbeverydifferentwithouttheproductsoftheindustry.Indeedthelevelofacountry’sdevelopmentmaybejudgedbytheproductionlevelandsophisticationofitschemicalindustry.很显然简单地看一下化学工业在满足我们关键需求方面所做贡献就能够知道，没有化工产品人类社会生活将会多么困难。实际上，一个国家发展水平能够经过其化学工业生产水平和精细程度来加以判定。4.ResearchandDevelopment(R&D)inChemicalIndustriesOneofthemainreasonsfortherapidgrowthofthechemicalindustryinthedevelopedworldhasbeenitsgreatcommitmentto,andinvestmentinresearchanddevelopment(R&D).Atypicalfigureis5%ofsalesincome,withthisfigurebeingalmostdoubledforthemostresearchintensivesector,pharmaceuticals.Itisimportanttoemphasizethatwearequotingpercentagesherenotofprofitsbutofsalesincome,i.e.thetotalmoneyreceived,whichhastopayforrawmaterials,overheads,staffsalaries,etc.aswell.Inthepastthistremendousinvestmenthaspaidoffwell,leadingtomanyusefulandvaluableproductsbeingintroducedtothemarket.Examplesincludesyntheticpolymerslikenylonsandpolyesters,anddrugsandpesticides.Althoughthenumberofnewproductsintroducedtothemarkethasdeclinedsignificantlyinrecentyears,andintimesofrecessiontheresearchdepartmentisusuallyoneofthefirsttosuffercutbacks,thecommitmenttoR&Dremainsataveryhighlevel.化学工业研究和开发。发达国家化学工业飞速发展一个关键原因就是它在研究和开发方面投入和投资。通常是销售收入5%，而研究密集型分支如制药，投入则加倍。要强调这里我们所提出百分数不是指利润而是指销售收入，也就是说全部回收钱，其中包含要付出原材料费，企业管理费，职员工资等等。过去这笔巨大投资支付得很好，使得很多有用和有价值产品被投放市场，包含部分合成高聚物如尼龙和聚脂，药品和杀虫剂。尽管多年来进入市场新产品大为降低，而且在衰退时期研究部门通常是最先被淘汰部门，在研究和开发方面投资仍然保持在较高水平。Thechemicalindustryisaveryhightechnologyindustrywhichtakesfulladvantageofthelatestadvancesinelectronicsandengineering.Computersareverywidelyusedforallsortsofapplications,fromautomaticcontrolofchemicalplants,tomolecularmodelingofstructuresofnewcompounds,tothecontrolofanalyticalinstrumentsinthelaboratory.化学工业是高技术工业，它需要利用电子学和 工程 路基工程安全技术交底工程项目施工成本控制工程量增项单年度零星工程技术标正投影法基本原理 学最新结果。计算机被广泛应用，从化工厂自动控制，到新化合物结构分子模拟，再到试验室分析仪器控制。Individualmanufacturingplantshavecapacitiesrangingfromjustafewtonesperyearinthefinechemicalsareatotherealgiantsinthefertilizerandpetrochemicalsectorswhichrangeupto500,000tonnes.Thelatterrequiresenormouscapitalinvestment,sinceasingleplantofthissizecannowcost$520million!This,coupledwiththewidespreaduseofautomaticcontrolequipment,helpstoexplainwhythechemicalindustryiscapital-ratherthanlabor-intensive.一个制造厂生产量很不一样，精细化工领域每十二个月只有几吨，而巨型企业如化肥厂和石油化工厂有可能高达500,000吨。后者需要巨大资金投入，因为一个这么规模工厂要花费2亿5千万美元，再加上自动控制设备普遍应用，就不难解释为何化工厂是资金密集型企业而不是劳动力密集型企业。Themajorchemicalcompaniesaretrulymultinationalandoperatetheirsalesandmarketingactivitiesinmostofthecountriesoftheworld,andtheyalsohavemanufacturingunitsinanumberofcountries.Thisinternationaloutlookforoperations,orglobalization,isagrowingtrendwithinthechemicalindustry,withcompaniesexpandingtheiractivitieseitherbyerectingmanufacturingunitsinothercountriesorbytakingovercompanieswhicharealreadyoperatingthere.大部分化学企业是真正跨国企业，她们在世界上很多国家进行销售和开发市场，她们在很多国家全部有制造厂。这种国际间合作理念，或全球一体化，是化学工业中发展趋势。大企业经过在别国家建造制造厂或是收购已经有工厂进行扩张。Unit2ResearchandDevelopment研究和开发Researchanddevelopment,orR&Dasitiscommonlyreferredto,isanactivitywhichiscarriedoutbyallsectorsofmanufacturingindustrybutitsextentvariesconsiderably,aswewillseeshortly.Letusfirstunderstand,oratleastgetafeelfor,whatthetermsmean.Althoughthedistinctionbetweenresearchanddevelopmentisnotalwaysclear-cut,andthereisoftenconsiderableoverlap,wewillattempttoseparatethem.Insimpletermsresearchcanbethoughtofastheactivitywhichproducesnewideasandknowledgewhereasdevelopmentisputtingthoseideasintopracticeasnewprocessandproducts.Toillustratethiswithanexample,predictingthestructureofanewmoleculewhichwouldhaveaspecificbiologicalactivityandsynthesizingitcouldbeseenasresearchwhereastestingitanddevelopingittothepointwhereitcouldbemarketedasanewdrugcouldbedescribedasthedevelopmentpart.研究和开发，或通常所称R&D是制造业各个部门全部要进行一项活动。我们立即能够看到，它内容改变很大。我们首先了解或先感觉一下这个词含义。尽管研究和开发定义总是分得不很清楚，而且有很多重合部分，我们还是要试着把它们区分开来。简单说来，研究是产生新思想和新知识活动，而开发则是把这些思想落实到实践中得到新工艺和新产品行为。能够用一个例子来描述这一点，估计一个有特殊生物活性分子结构并合成它能够看成是研究而测试它并把它发展到能够作为一个新药推向市场这一阶段则看作开发部分。FundamentalResearchandAppliedResearchInindustrytheprimaryreasonforcartingoutR&Diseconomicandistostrengthenandimprovethecompany’spositionandprofitability.ThepurposeofR&Distogenerateandprovideinformationandknowledgetoreduceuncertainty,solveproblemsandtoprovidebetterdataonwhichmanagementcanbasedecisions.Specificprojectscoverawiderangeofactivitiesandtimescales,fromafewmonthsto20years.基础研究和应用研究在工业上进行研究和开发最关键原因是经济利益方面，是为了加强企业地位，提升企业利润。R&D目标是做出并提供信息和知识以减低不确定性，处理问题，和向管理层提供愈加好数据方便她们能据此做出决定。尤其项目涵盖很大活动范围和时间范围，从多个月到20年。WecanpickoutanumberofareasofR&Dactivityinthefollowingparagraphsbutifweweretostartwiththosewhichweretospringtothemindoftheacademic,ratherthantheindustrial,chemistthenthesewouldbebasic,fundamental(background)orexploratoryresearchandthesynthesisofnewcompounds.Thisisalsolabeled“blueskies”research.我们能够在后面段落里举出大量R&D活动。不过假如我们举出点子起源于研究院而不是工业化学家头脑，这就是基础或探索性研究Fundamentalresearchistypicallyassociatedwithuniversityresearch.Itmaybecarriedoutforitsownintrinsicinterestanditwilladdtothetotalknowledgebasebutnoimmediateapplicationsofitinthe“realworld”wellbeapparent.Notethatitwillprovideavaluabletrainingindefiningandsolvingproblems,i.e.researchmethodologyfortheresearchstudentwhocarriesitoutundersupervision.However,later“spinoffs”fromsuchworkcanleadtousefulapplications.Thusphysicistsclaimthatbutforthestudyanddevelopmentofquantumtheorywemightnothavehadcomputersandnuclearpower.However,totakeaspecificallychemicalexample,generalstudiesonabroadareasuchashydrocarbonoxidationmightprovideinformationwhichwouldbeusefulinmorespecificareassuchascyclohexaneoxidationfortheproductionofnylonintermediates.基础研究通常和大学研究联络在一起，它可能是因为对其内在爱好而进行研究而且这种研究能够拓宽知识范围，但在现实世界中直接应用可能性是很小。请注意，这种以内就在提出和处理问题方面提供了极有价值训练，比如，在指导下完成研究工作学生所接收研究 方法 快递客服问题件处理详细方法山木方法pdf计算方法pdf华与华方法下载八字理论方法下载 学（训练）。而且，从这些工作中产生“有用副产品”随即也能带来可观使用价值。所以，物理学家宣称要不是量子理论研究和发展我们可能仍然没有计算机和核能量。不管怎样，举一个特殊化学方面例子吧，在各个领域如烃氧化方面所做广泛研究将为部分特殊领域如环己烯氧化生成尼龙中间产物提供有用信息。Aspectsofsynthesiscouldinvolveeitherdevelopingnew,morespecificreagentsforcontrollingparticularfunctionalgroupinterconversions,i.e.developingsyntheticmethodologyorcompletesynthesisofanentirelynewmoleculewhichisbiologicallyactive.Althoughtheformerisclearlyfundamentalthelatterencompassesboththisandappliedaspects.Thisterm‘applied’hastraditionallybeenmoreassociatedwithresearchoutinindustriallaboratories,sincethisismorefocusedortargeted.Itisaconsequenceoftheworkbeingbusinessdriven.经过合成能够生产出部分新、更特殊试剂以控制特殊官能团转换，即发展合成方法或完成部分含有生物活性新分子合成。尽管前者显然属于基础性研究以后者则包含基础研究和实用性研究两部分。所谓“实用性”习惯上是指和在工业试验室完成研究联络在一起，因为它更具目标性，它是商业行为驱动结果。Note,however,thattherehasbeenamajorchangeinrecentyearsasacademicinstitutionshaveincreasinglyturnedtoindustryforresearchfunding,withtheresultthatmuchmoreoftheirresearcheffortismowdevotedtomoreappliedresearch.Evenso,inacademiatheemphasisgenerallyisverymuchontheresearchratherthanthedevelopment.然而，请注意。近几年有很大改变，大学研究机构正越来越多地转向工业界寻求研究经费，其结果就是她们研究工作越来越多地是致力于实用研究。即使这么，学院工作关键通常还是在于研究而不是开发。TypesofIndustrialResearchandDevelopmentTheappliedormoretargetedtypeofresearchanddevelopmentcommonlycarriedoutinindustrycanbeofseveraltypesandwewillbrieflyconsidereach.Theyare:(ⅰ)productdevelopment,(ⅱ)processdevelopment,(ⅲ)processimprovementand(ⅳ)applicationsdevelopment.Evenundertheseheadingsthereareamultitudeofaspectssoonlyatypicalexamplecanbequotedineachcase.Theemphasisoneachofthesewillvaryconsiderablywithinthedifferentsectorsofthechemicalindustry.2．工业研究和开发类型通常在生产中完成实用型或有目标性研究和开发能够分为好几类，我们对此加以简述。它们是：（1）产品开发；（2）工艺开发；（3）工艺改善；（4）应用开发；每一类下还有很多分支。我们.对每一类举一个经典例子来加以说明。在化学工业不一样部门内每类工作关键有很大不一样。(1)Productdevelopment.Productdevelopmentincludesnotonlythediscoveryanddevelopmentofanewdrugbutalso,forexample,providinganewlonger-activeanti-oxidantadditivetoanautomobileengineoil.Developmentsuchasthishaveenabledservicingintervalstoincreaseduringthelastdecadefrom3000to6000to9000andnowto1miles.Notethatmostpurchasersofchemicalsacquirethemfortheeffectsthattheyproducei.e.aspecificuse.Teflon,orpolytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE),maybepurchasedbecauseitimpartsanon-sticksurfacetocookingpotsandpans,therebymakingthemeasiertoclean.(1)产品开发。产品开发不仅包含一个新药发明和生产，还包含，比如说，给一个汽车发动机提供更长时效抗氧化添加剂。这种开发产品已经使（发动机）服务期限在最近十年中从3000英里提升到6000、9000现在已提升到1英里。请注意，大部分买家所需要是化工产品能发明出来效果，亦即某种特殊用途。Tdflon，或称聚四氟乙烯（PTFE）被购置是因为它能使炒菜锅、盆表面不粘，易于清洗。(2)Processdevelopment.Processdevelopmentcoversnotonlydevelopingamanufacturingprocessforanentirelynewproductbutalsoanewprocessorrouteforanexistingproduct.Thepushforthelattermayoriginateforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:availabilityofnewtechnology,changeintheavailabilityand/orcostofrawmaterials.Manufactureofvinylchloridemonomerisanexampleofthis.Itsmanufacturingroutehaschangedseveraltimesowingtochangingeconomics,technologyandrawmaterials.Anotherstimulusisamarkedincreaseindemandandhencesalesvolumewhichcanhaveamajoreffectontheeconomicsoftheprocess.Theearlydaysofpenicillinmanufactureaffordagoodexampleofthis.（2）工艺开发。工业开发不仅包含为一个全新产品设计一套制造工艺，还包含为现有产品设计新工艺或 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。而要进行后者时可能源于下面一个或多个原因：新技术利用、原材料取得或价格发生了改变。氯乙烯单聚物制造就是这么一个例子。它制造方法伴随经济、技术和原材料改变改变了好几次。另一个刺激原因是需求显著增加。所以销售量对生产步骤经济效益有很大影响。Penicillin早期制造就为此提供了一个很好例子。TheabilityofpenicillintopreventtheonsetofsepticemiainbattlewoundsduringtheSecondWorldWar(1939～1945)resultedinanenormousdemandforittobeproducedinquantity.Upuntilthenithadonlybeenproducedinsmallamountsonthesurfaceofthefermentationbrothinmilkbottles!AnenormousR&DeffortjointlyintheU.S.andtheU.K.resultedintwomajorimprovementstotheprocess.FirstlyadifferentstainofthemouldgavemuchbetteryieldsthantheoriginalPenicilliumnotatum.Secondlythemajorprocessdevelopmentwastheintroductionofthedeepsubmergedfermentationprocess.Herethefermentationtakesplacethroughoutthebroth,providedsterileairisconstantly,andvigorously,blownthroughit.Thishasenabledtheprocesstobescaledupenormouslytomodernstainlesssteelfermentershavingacapacityinexcessof50000liters.Itissalutarytonotethatinthefirstworldwar(1914～1919)moresoldiersdiedfromsepticemiaoftheirwoundsthanwereactuallykilledoutrightonthebattlefield!Penicillin能预防战争中因伤口感染引发败血症，所以在第二次世界大战（1939-1945）中，penicillin需求量很大，需要大量生产。而在那时，penicillin只能用在瓶装牛奶表面发酵方法小量生产。英国和美国投入了巨大人力物力联合进行研制和开发，对生产步骤做出了两个重大改善。首先用一个不一样菌株—黄霉菌替换一般青霉，它产量要比后者高得多。第二个重大步骤开发是引进了深层发酵过程。只要在培养液中连续通入大量纯化空气，发酵就能在全部部位进行。这使生产能力大大地增加，达成现代容量超出5000升不锈钢发酵器。而在第一次世界大战中，死于伤口感染士兵比直接死于战场上人还要多。注意到这一点不能不让我们心存感激。Processdevelopmentforanewp