组织行为学12-Leadership

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内容仅供您学习参考，如有不当或者侵权，请联系改正或者删除。Chapter12.Leadership1ByJonOlsonandPatriciaBoltonOneofthedominantthemesinthemanagementliteraturetodayinvolvestheroleofleadershipinassuringorganizationaleffectiveness.Whilelesssignificantinthesociologicalliteratureonorganizations,theliteratureonorganizationalpsychology,management,andparticularlythepopularliterature,haselevatedtheleader/managerintooneoftheprimedeterminantsoforganizationalsuccess.Thisisnolesstrueintheworldofpublicsciencethanintheworldofcommercialbusiness.Giventhepaceofchangeinsciencethesedays,creatingandmaintainingeffectiveorganizationalandmanagementsystems,motivatedandcreativestaff,andstrategicallyfocusedresearchisparticularlyimportant.Leadershipinscientificorganizationsrequiresachallengingcombinationoftechnical,organizational,andpoliticalknowledge,managerialcompetence,politicalsavvy,organizationalvision,andcommunicationandhumanrelationsskills.Theorganizationalliteraturecanhelppublicsciencemanagersstructuretheirthinkingabouttheattributesofeffectiveleadershipinpublicscienceorganizations,learnfromtheexperiencesofotherswhohaveheldpositionsofleadership,andunderstandthestrategiesorganizationshaveusedtodevelopandcapitalizeoneffectiveleaders.WhatisLeadership?Theearlyliteratureonleadershipwasdominatedbyattemptstodefineitsessentialcharacteristics.Thisexercisehasgeneratedmuchdebateanddifferenceinperspective.AccordingtoBass(1997:17),leadershiphasbeenconceivedasthefocusofgroupprocesses,asamatterofpersonality,asamatterofinducingcompliance,astheexerciseofinfluence,asparticularbehaviors,asaformofpersuasion,asapowerrelation,asaninstrumenttoachievegoals,asaneffectofinteraction,asadifferentiatedrole,asaninitiationofstructure,andasmanycombinationsofthesedefinitions.Oneofthefirststepsinassessingtherelevanceoftheliteratureonleadershipforsciencemanagementorganizations,therefore,istobringalittleclaritytowhatismeantbyleadership.Amongthedifferentdefinitionsofleadershipfoundinthisliteratureare:♦Leadershipaspersonality:thisliteraturefocusesondiscoveringtheleadershippersonalityandexaminingwhatitisaboutthecharacter,underlyingmotivations,andbasicbehavioralstylesthatmakeanindividualaleader.Writersweredrawntotheobviouslyexceptional,andattimesextreme,personalitiesofparticularleaders(Alexander,Lincoln),andthussoughttheexplanationofleadershipinthesimilaritiesamongthesepersonalities(Bogardus1928).Thislineofinquiryhasnotbeensupportedbytheresultsofempiricalresearch.1Relatedchaptersinclude:Strategy;ChangeManagement;Teams,andProject-andProgram-BasedOrganizations;OrganizationalCulture;OrganizationalCommunicationCh12Leadership06.08.02.doc06.08.02♦♦Leadershipasanoutcomeofgroupprocess:thislineofresearchfocusesongroupdynamicsanddefinesleadershipasanoutcomeofthisdynamic,ratherthanasaseparablephenomenoninitsownright(Cooley1902).Researchhasconfirmedthatgroupdynamicsareanimportantdeterminantofleaderbehavior,butthatleadershipalsohasaseparableeffectongroups(Bass1981).Leadershipasinfluence:incontrasttothegroupdynamicsperspective,otherwritershavedefinedleadershipastheprocessofexertingindividualinfluenceonfollowers’behaviors.Thisliteraturedefinesleadershipasthepowertopersuade(Stogdill1950),boththroughthecontroloverresources(rewardsandpunishments),andviatheexerciseofcharismaandargument.Inthisliterature,adistinctionisfrequentlymadebetweentransactionalandtransformationalleaders(Bass1981).Transactionalleadersaredefinedasthosewhoachievecompliancethroughsocialexchange(e.g.,rewardsandpunishments),whiletransformationalleadersconvinceotherstoviewthesituationdifferentlythantheyotherwisewould,andtorespondpositivelytotheleader'salternativevision.Transformationalleadershipisthussimilartocharismaticleadership.Heifetz(1994)providesagooddiscussionofthechallengesandrequirementsoftransformationalleadershipanditsroleatdifferentlevelsinanorganization.Aparallelcontrastismadeintheorganizationalliterature'sdescriptionoforganizationalidealtypesreferredtobyMcGregor(1960,1966)asTheoryXandTheoryY.TheoryXorganizationsarecommandandcontrolwithcomplianceachievedthroughrewardsandpunishments.TheoryYorganizationsarelooserandfreer,withcontrolachievedbyvoluntarycompliancegainedthroughpersuasionandaffiliation.♦Leadershipasapatternofactivitiesandfocusofattentionandeffort:thisresearchfocusesonwhatleadersdowhenprovidingleadership.Kotter(1999),Laurie(),andHeifetz(1994)emphasizethesetofresponsibilitiesthatleadersmustmeetandthetypeoffocusandactionsneededtoaccomplishthem.BothLaurieandHeifetzemphasizeleaders’importantroleinsteppingoutsidetheday-to-daycrisestoprovideabroaderperspectiveonthechallengesandopportunitiesfacingtheorganizationtoimprovetheireffectivenessinsettingthecontext,framingtheproblems,andmobilizingthestafftoworkonthoseproblems.Asignificantsubsetofthisliteratureidentifiesthecreation,management,and,whennecessary,transformationoforganizationalcultureastheessentialfunctionandkeycompetencyofleadership(Schein1992,1999).SeeChapter11foramoredetaileddiscussionoftheintersectionbetweenleadershipandorganizationalculture.Inthisliteratureadistinctionisoftenmadebetweenleadershipandmanagement.AfairlyrecentexampleofthiscontrastisprovidedbyKotter(1997,1999).Kotterdefinestheessenceofleadershipas”copingwithchange,”andmanagementas”copingwithcomplexity.”Managementactivitiesincludeplanningandbudgeting,organizingandstaffing,andcontrollingandproblemsolving.Incontrast,Kotterdescribesthekeyleadershipactivitiesassettingadirection,aligningpeople(withthedirection),andmotivatingandinspiring.Thus,managementismoreadministrative,leadershipmoreinterpersonal.TheModelLeaderMuchenergyhasbeenexpendedintheliteratureattemptingtodiscoverordefinethemodelleader.Earlyworklookedforthismodelinthetraitsandskillsofparticularleaders.StudiesofCh12Leadership06.08.02.doc206.08.02theworld’sgreatleaderswerepursuedinordertodistilltheessenceofleadership(seeBass1997foradiscussionofthisearlyliterature).Althoughtheresearchliteraturehasnotgenerallysupportedthedevelopmentofasingularrobustmodel,thepopularmanagementliteraturecontinuestoadvancesetsoftraitsandbehaviorsasnearlyuniversallyapplicable.Arecentversionofthemodelleaderliteraturefocusesonanalyzingsignificanttrendsinorganizationsandinthebroadersocietytoidentifytheleadershipskillsandtraitsthataremostconducivetosuccesswithinemergingformsoforganizationandevolvingsocietalexpectations(see,forexample,Hesselbeinetal.1996).Thisresearchofferssomeinsightintoleadership.Attheriskofoversimplification,keyattributesofthemodernversionofthemodelleaderincludetheabilitytoframeandcommunicateagrandandstrategicvision,empowerothersandfostercollaborationandteams,recognizeandrewardindividualandteamaccomplishments,andmotivateandinfluence(Hitt1993,KouzesandPosner1995,Covey1996).ContingencyTheoryForalmostaslongastherehasbeenresearchonleadershiptherehasbeenarecognitionthatdifferenttypesofleadersarebestadaptedtodifferenttypesofsituations.Forexample,Weber’s(1946)earlyworkonthebasesoflegitimateauthorityinthestateidentifiedthreetypesoflegitimateleaders:thosewhobasetheirauthorityonsocialtradition,thosewhobasetheirauthorityonrationality,andthosewhoexertcharismaticinfluenceoverothers.Differenttypesofleaderswereviewedassuccessfulindifferenttypesofsituations.Afairlyrecentreviewoftheleadershipliteraturebyoneofitsmostrespectedcontributors(Fiedler1996)identifiessomeofthemostimportantaspectsofacontingentviewofleadership.First,theresearchliteratureprovidesnoevidencefortheexistenceofuniversaltraits,personalities,orevenbehaviorsthatcanbelinkedtoleadereffectiveness.Second,theeffectivenessofaleaderinaparticularsituationdependson”howwelltheleader’spersonality,abilitiesandbehaviorsmatchthesituationinwhichtheleaderoperates”(p.242).Third,akeymediatingfactorbetweentheleader’straitsandthesituationishowtheleaderrespondstostressfulsituations–whattypesofsituationstheyfindtobestressfulandhowtheyengagetheirgroupsandmakedecisionsinthefaceofstress.Leadershipskillshavebeenstudiedaspartoftheobservedtrendtowardteam-basedorganizations(Mohrmanetal.1995;seealsoChapter8.”TeamsandProject-andProgram-BasedOrganizations”),whichisseentoresultfromtheresponseoforganizationstoanincreasinglycomplexexternaloperatingenvironment.Organizationstendtobecomemoreinternallycomplexinordertorespondtotheexternalcomplexity(LawrenceandLorsch1967),andonewaytodealwiththedemandsofincreasedinternalandexternalcomplexityistoorganizearoundteams(Galbraith1994).Teamsthenconductthebasicworkoftheorganization.Teamsaredefinedandstaffedwithvaryinglevelsofpermanenceandtypicallybridgehistoriclineorganizations.Thisorganizationalpatternisparticularlyrelevanttoscienceandtechnology-basedorganizations,giventhecomplexityoftheenvironmentsthattheseorganizationsface.Thetypesofleadershipskillsthatarenecessarytooperatethistypeoforganizationincludefunctionalortechnicalcompetence,broad-basedknowledgeoftheorganization,interpersonalandconflictresolutionskills,decision-makingskills,learningskills,communication,meetingmanagement,andinterpersonalinfluence(Mohrmanetal.1995).Ch12Leadership06.08.02.doc306.08.02Alsoconsistentwithcontingencytheoryisthenotionthatperiodsofplannedorunintendedorganizationalchangerequireleaderswithparticularskillsandattributesinordertohelptheorganizationsuccessfullynavigatethechangeprocess.AcurrentpopularexampleofthisapproachcanbefoundinKotter(1996),whoemphasizestheinfluenceaspectsofleadershipbystressingtheimportanceofaleader’sabilitytoestablishasenseofurgencyandtodevelopandcommunicateavisionforchange.Healsostressestheimportanceoftheleader’spoliticalskillsinunderstandingtheorganization,tyingthechangeagendatotheunderlyingculture,creatingadominantcoalitionwithintheorganizationinsupportofchange,motivatingsupportbyempoweringemployees,andgeneratingshort-termwins.Leadership,Innovation,andScienceBasedoncontingencytheory,itisreasonabletoassumethatleadershipbest-practicewillvarysomewhatfororganizationsthatproducescienceastheirmainproductincontrasttoorganizationsthatproduceotherthings.Theroleofleadershipinscience-basedorganizationshasnotreceivedthelevelofresearchattentionthatitdeserves.However,theemergingresearchontechnology-basedorganizationsandinnovationmayprovidesomeinsightintoleadershipmodelsforsciencemanagement.Accordingtotwoofthemostinfluentialwritersonteam-basedorganizations,MillerandMorris(1999:229),”Thenewleadersintheorganizationmustlookbroadlyratherthannarrowly.Theymusthaveasolidtechnicalfoundation,butalsounderstandpeople,business,learning,informationtechnology,andmarketing.”Thespecialroleoftheseleadersistoassurethatindividualsandteamsaggregateknowledgethathasstrategicrelevancetotheorganization.Basedonasurveyofover600technologyorganizations,JonashandSommerlatte(1999)havealsoidentifiedasetofleadershiptraitsthatarerelatedtohigherlevelsofinnovationandsuccessfuldeploymentofinnovations.Primaryamongthemisthemodeloftheleaderascoach.Successfulleadersofinnovationmanagementarenotsimplytechnology-mindedautocrats….Theyare,inasense,likecoachesofall-starfootballteams.Theyarenotoutonthefieldscoringtouchdowns,buttheyarecreatingtheconditionsthatmakeitpossiblefortheentireorganizationtoleadtheleague….Theseseniorinnovationleadersinspirethehearts,minds,capabilities,andpowersofotherkeyplayers…(JonahandSommerlatte1999:75).Thecoachmodelemphasizesthoseleadershipskillsandtraitsembodiedinteamandtransformationalleadership.Takingalongitudinallookattheeffectsofleadershippatternsoninnovation,Manzetal.(1989)findthatbothtransactionalandtransformationalleadershipapproachesarerequiredforinnovation,althoughatdifferenttimeswithinaparticularorganization.Thatis,forbothapproaches,exchangerelationshipstoensurecomplianceandtheprocessofinterpersonalinfluencetoensurecommitmentarerequired.Whilestudiesoftheroleofleadershipinscience-producingorganizationsarerare,itcanbeanticipatedthatbothtransactionalandtransformationalapproachesarerequiredtoretainandmotivatestaffaswellastopromotecreativitywhilemaintainingworkerandenvironmentalsafety.Ch12Leadership06.08.02.doc406.08.02TheApplicationofLeadershiptoPublicScienceManagementLeadershipisanimportantareaofconsiderationforassuringexcellenceinthemanagementofscience.However,determiningexactlywhataspectsofleadershiptostressandhowpublicscienceorganizationscantakeconcretestepstoassurepositiveleadershipwithinitsscienceestablishmentaredauntingtasks.Inapplyingtheliteratureonleadershiptothemanagementofpublicscience,thefollowingconsiderationsmaybeuseful.Management:Whilesomeoftheliteratureattemptstoseparatetheconceptsofmanagementandleadershipforanalyticalpurposes,organizations–andindividuals–shouldbeconcernedwithboth.Muchintheenterpriseofscienceisbasicallyadministrative(e.g.,budgeting,procurement,personneladministration,informationdissemination).Firstandforemost,publicscienceorganizationsmusthavethesystemsandproceduresinplacetosupporttheprocessofscience.However,simplyhavingthesystemsinplacedoesnotensurethattheywillbeused.Thus,thestaffingofpositionsthathavesignificantadministrativeresponsibilitieswithleaders/managerswhohavetheaptitude,skills,andmotivationforadministrativeworkisrelevanttothegoalofmaintainingeffectiveleadership.VisionaryLeadership:Thepaceofscientificandtechnologicalchangeisincredible.Nolongercantheadvancementofsciencebeviewedastheprocessofincrementaladditionstoknowledgeresultingfromtheresearchagendasofindividualscientists(althoughtheseadditionsstillcanhaveamajorimpact).Instead,scienceisincreasinglyadvancedbyorganizationsandconsortiaoforganizationsmobilizingtodevelopprogrammaticapproachestoaparticularresearcharea,supportedbystrategicallydefinedfacilitiesandresearchstaff.Whilethebasicresearchagendamaybeframedbypolicymakersandresearchfunders,visionaryleadersarerequiredtohelpshapethatagenda,giveitsubstance,andaligntheorganization’sresourcesinawaythatleadstoprogressontheagenda.Whiletheneedforvisionaryleadershipmaybeevident,itislessclearhowpublicscienceorganizationsthatarepartofthegovernmentalbureaucracycanpromoteorsupportvisionaryleadershipwithintheirlaboratories,orevenamongtheirownstaff.TechnicalLeadership:Theroleofthetechnicalleaderintheadvancementofsciencewillalwaysbeasignificantone.Technicalleadership,however,referstomorethansimplybeingthesmartestscientistaboutaparticulartopic.Italsoreferstosuchattributesasbeinganeffectiveprojectadministratorandteambuilder,withtheabilitytodefineandbuildresearchprograms.So,alongwiththerequisitetechnicalknowledgeandmasteryofmethodmustbeconsideredtheadministrativeandpeopleskillsthatmakeknowledgeleadershipanorganizationalasset.Andwhilethepervasivenessofthepatternrequiresclarification,itisoftennotedthatthosestaffwiththegreatesttechnicalmasteryareoftenthosewholacktheadministrativeandpeopleskillstofullycapitalizeontechnicalknowledgeandinsight.Totheextentthatscienceorganizationsareabletofindtechnicalleaderswhocombineallofthesestrengths(oreffectivelycompensatefortheirweaknesses),theycanreasonablybeexpectedtoincreasetheireffectivenessinthemanagementofscience.Athoroughunderstandingofthecurrentpracticeoftechnicalleadershipwillhelptheorganizationsdeterminewhether,andwhat,interventionsarerequired.TeamLeadership:Asdescribedearlier,oneofthedominant,recentadditionstotheliteratureonleadershipfocusesonteamleadership.Mostscienceadvancesthroughprojects.Increasingly,thoseprojectsarecomprisedofinterdisciplinaryteams,andveryoftenhaveprojectstaffwhoareassembledspecificallyfortheprojectinquestion.Theabilityofprojectmanagers(andothers)toworkeffectivelyinthisfluidorganizationalenvironmentmaythusbecomeanessentialCh12Leadership06.08.02.doc506.08.02leadership-relatedattributeofeffectivescienceorganizations.Publicscienceorganizationsshouldconsiderevaluatingtheneedforteamleadershipskillsandassessingtheextenttowhichthoseskillsareevidentincurrentpractice.ReferencesBass,BernardM.1997.ConceptsofLeadership.InLeadership:UnderstandingtheDynamicsofPowerandInfluenceinOrganizations.RobertP.Vecchio(ed.).NotreDame,IN:UniversityofNotreDamePress.Bass,BernardM.1981.Stogdill'sHandbookofLeadership:ASurveyofTheoryandResearch.NewYork:TheFreePress.Bennis,W.,andB.Nanus.1985.Leaders:TheStrategiesforTakingCharge.NewYork:HarperCollins.Bogardus,E.S.1928.WorldLeadershipTypes.SociologyandSocialResearch12:573-599.Burns,J.M.1978.Leadership.NewYork:HarperCollins.Cooley,C.H.1902.HumanNatureandtheSocialOrder.NewYork:Scribners.Covey,Stephen.1996.ThreeRolesoftheLeaderintheNewParadigm.InTheLeaderoftheFuture:NewVisions,Strategies,andPracticesfortheNextEra.FrancesHesselbein,MarshallGoldsmith,andRichardBeckhard(eds.).SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.Fiedler,FredE.1996.ResearchonLeadershipSelectionandTraining:OneViewoftheFuture.AdministrativeScienceQuarterly41:241-250.Fiedler,FredE.,andJ.E.Garcia.1987.NewApproachestoEffectiveLeadership.NewYork:Wiley.Galbraith,J.R.1994.CompetingwithFlexibleLateralOrganizations.Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley.Heifetz,RonaldA.1994.LeadershipWithoutEasyAnswers.Cambridge,MA:TheBelknapPress.Hesselbein,Frances,MarshallGoldsmith,andRichardBeckhard.1996.TheLeaderoftheFuture:NewVisions,Strategies,andPracticesfortheNextEra.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.Hitt,WilliamD.1993.TheModelLeader:AFullyFunctioningPerson.Columbus,OH:BattelleMemorialInstitute.Jonash,RonaldS.,andTomSommerlatte.1999.TheInnovationPremium:HowNext-GenerationCompaniesareAchievingPeakPerformanceandProfitability.Reading,MA:PerseusBooks.Kotter,JohnP.1996.LeadingChange.Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.Kotter,JohnP.1999.JohnP.KotteronWhatLeadersReallyDo.Boston:HarvardBusinessReviewBooks.Kouzes,JamesM.,andBarryZ.Posner.1995.TheLeadershipChallenge:HowtoKeepGettingExtraordinaryThingsDoneinOrganizations.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.Ch12Leadership06.08.02.doc606.08.02Laurie,DonaldL..TheRealWorkofLeaders.Cambridge,MA:PerseusPublishing.Lawrence,PaulR.,andJayW.Lorsch.1967.OrganizationandEnvironment:ManagingDifferentiationandIntegration.Boston,MA:HarvardUniversity.McGregor,D.1960.TheHumanSideofEnterprise.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.McGregor,D.1966.LeadershipandMotivation.Cambridge,MA:M.I.T.Press.Manz,CharlesC.,DavidT.Bastien,ToddJ.Hostager,andGeorgeL.Shapiro.1989.LeadershipandInnovation:ALongitudinalProcessView.InResearchontheManagementofInnovation:TheMinnesotaStudies.AndrewH.VandeVen,HaroldL.Angle,andMarshallScottPoole(eds.).NewYork:Harper&Row.Pp.613-636.Miller,William,andLangdonMorris.1999.FourthGenerationR&D:ManagingKnowledge,Technology,andInnovation.NewYork:JohnWiley.Mohrman,S.A.,S.G.Cohen,andA.M.Mohrman,Jr.1995.DesigningTeam-BasedOrganizations.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.Schein,EdgarH.1992(copyright1985).OrganizationalCultureandLeadership.SanFrancisco:Jossey-BassPublishers.Schein,EdgarH.1999.TheCorporateCultureSurvivalGuide:SenseandNonsenseaboutCulturalChange.SanFrancisco:Jossey-BassPublishers.Stogdill,R.M.1950.Leadership,MembershipandOrganization.PsychologicalBulletin47:1-14.Weber,Max.1946.TheSociologyofCharismaticAuthority.InFromMaxWeber:EssaysinSociology.H.H.MillsandC.W.Mills(eds.andtrans.).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Ch12Leadership06.08.02.doc706.08.02