托福阅读TPO-20-21阅读_免费下载

托福阅读TPO-20-21阅读_免费下载 WESTWARDMIGRATION (TPO20-1) Paragraph1 The story of the westward movement of population in the United States is, in the main, the story of the expansion of American agriculture-of the development of new areas for the raising of livestock and the cultivation of wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. After 1815 improved transportation enabled more and more western farmers to escape a self-sufficient way of life and enter a national market economy during periods when commodity prices were high, the rate of westward migration increased spectacularly.“Old America seemed to be breaking up and moving westward,” observed an English visitor in 1817, during the first great wave of migration. Emigration to the west reached a peak in the 1830?s. whereas in 1810 only a seventy of the American people lived west of the Appalachian mountains, by 1840more than a third lived there. Paragraph2 Why were these hundreds of thousands of setters-most of them farmers some of them artisans-drawn away from the cleared fields and established cities and villages of the East? Certain characteristics of American society help to explain this remarkable migration. The European ancestors of some Americans had for centuries lived rooted to the same village or piece of land until some religious, political, or economic crisis uprooted them and drove them across the Atlantic. Many of those who experienced this sharp break thereafter lacked the ties that had bound them and their ancestors to a single place. Moreover, European society was relatively stratified; occupation and social status were inherited. In American society, however, the class structure was less rigid; some people changed occupations easily and believed it was their duty to improve their social and economic position. As a result, many Americans were an inveterately restless, rootless, and ambitious people. Therefore, these social and economic position. As a result, many Americans were an inveterately restless, rootless, and ambitious people. Therefore, these social traits helped to produce the nomadic and daring settlers who kept pushing westward beyond the fringes of settlement. In addition, there were other immigrants who migrated west in search of new homes, material success, and better lives. Paragraph3 The west had plenty of attractions: the alluvial river bottoms, the fecund soils of the rolling forest lands, the black loams of the prairies were tempting to New England farmers working their rock, sterile land and to southeastern farmers plagued with soil depletion and erosion. In 1820 under a new land law, a farm could be bought for 100. The continued proliferation of banks made it easier for those without cash to negotiate loans in paper money. Western farmers borrowed with the confident expectation that the exploding economy would keep farm prices high, thus making it easy to repay loans when they fell due. Paragraph4 Transportation was becoming less of a problem of those who wished to move west and for those who wished to move west and for those who had far surpluses to send to market. Prior to 1815,western farmers who did not live on navigable waterways were connected to them only by dirt roads and mountain trails. Livestock could be driven across the mountains, but the cost of transporting bulky grains in this fashion was several times greater than their value in eastern markets. The first step toward an improvement of western transportation was the construction of turnpikes. These roads made possible a reduction in transportation costs and thus agriculture along their routes. Paragraph5 Two other developments presaged the end of the era of turnpikes and stared a transportation revolution that resulted in increased regional specialization and the growth of a national market economy First came the steamboat; although flatboats and keelboats continued to be important until the 1850?s, steamboats eventually superseded all other craft in the carrying of passengers and freight. Steamboats were not only faster but also transported upriver freight for about one tenth of what it had previously cost on hand propelled keelboats. Next came the Erie canal, an enormous project in its day, spanning about 350miles. After the canal went into operation, the cost per mile of transporting a ton of freight from Buffalo to New York City declined from nearly 20 cents to less that 1 cent. Eventually, the western states diverted much of their produce from the rivers to the Erie Canal, a shorter route to eastern markets. 1 Paragraph1 1 What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about western farmers prior to 1815? ?They had limited their crop production to wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. ?They were able to sell their produce at high prices. ?They had not been successful in raising cattle. ?They did not operate in a national market economy. 2 What is the purpose of the statement, “whereas in 1810 only a seventy of the American people lived west of Appalachian Mountains, by 1840 more than a third lived there”? ?To illustrate that generally population shifts occur rapidly ?To correct a mistaken impression of American agriculture from 1810 to 1840 ?To emphasize the range and speed with which the westward migration occurred ?To demonstrate how attractive the Appalachian Mountains were to Americans Paragraph2, 3 The word „fringes? in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Borders ?Groups ?Types ?Directions 4 According to paragraph 2, all of the following are reasons why Americans migrated westward EXCEPT ?The desire to move from one pace to the next ?The hope of improving their socioeconomic status ?The opportunity to change jobs ?The need to escape religious or political crises Paragraph3, 5 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ?Because the West had more rivers and forests than the East, its soil was more productive. ?The fertile soils of the West drew farmers from regions with barren soils. ?Farmers living in western areas of the United States were more affected by soil erosion that farmers living in eastern areas. ?The soil in western areas of the United States was richer than soil in eastern areas. 6 According to paragraph 3, what was the significance of the land law passed in 1820? ?It granted government-supported loans to farmers. ?It provided farmland at an affordable price. ?It required banks to offer loans to farmers. ?It enabled farmers to sell their land for a profit. 7 The word “proliferation” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Growth ?Cooperation ?Importance ?Success Paragraph4, 8 Paragraph 4 suggests that turnpikes affected farmers by ?Making the price of grain uniform for both eastern and western farmers ?Making western farm products more profitable than eastern farm products. ?Allowing farmers to drive their livestock across mountain trails 2 ?Allowing a greater number of farmers to sell their farm products in a commercial Market Paragraph5, 9 The word “superseded” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Replaced ?Reformed ?Equaled ?Increased 10 The word “diverted” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Collected shifted ?Shifted ?Transported ?Sold 11 Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about flatboats and keelboats? ?They ceased to be used as soon as the first turnpikes were built. ?They were slower and more expensive to operate than steamboats. ?They were used for long distance but not for regional transportation. ?They were used primarily on the Erie Canal. 12 Paragraph 5 mentions that the Erie Canal led to a reduction in all of the following EXCEPT ?The length of the route that goods from the West traveled across to reach eastern markets ?The cost of transporting freight ?The price of produce from western states ?The amount of produce from western states that was shipped on rivers Paragraph 4: Transportation was becoming less of a problem of those who wished to move west and for those who had far surpluses to send to market. ? Prior to 1815, western farmers who did not live on navigable waterways were connected to them only by dirt roads and mountain traits. ? Livestock could be driven across the mountains, but the cost of transporting bulky grains in this fashion was several times greater than their value in eastern markets. ? The first step toward an improvement of western transportation was the construction of turnpikes. ? These roads made possible a reduction in transportation costs and thus agriculture along their routes. 13 Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. In fact, goods could be shipped more cheaply across the much greater distance of the Atlantic Ocean than they could from western New York to coastal cities. Where would the sentence best fit? 14 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points The westward movement of population across the United States led to expanded agricultural production. Answer choices 1. The desire to improve their livelihood often inspired people to move west. 2. Among the people who moved to the western United States were a number of artisans. 3. The fertility of western farmland as well as favorable government policies supported agricultural gains. 4. Steamboats were originally used to transport passengers rather than freight. 5. Commercial farming in the West was greatly enhanced by improvements in land and water transportation. 6. The transportation revolution resulted in regional economies that operated independently of a national market economy. 3 EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTHWEST ASIA(TPO20-2) Paragraph1: The universal global warming at the end of the ice age had dramatic effects on temperate regions of Asia, Europe, and North America. Ice sheets retreated and sea level rose. The climatic changes in southwestern Asia were more subtle, in that they involved shifts in mountain snow lines, rainfall patterns, and vegetation cover. However, these same cycles of change and had momentous impacts on the sparse human populations of the region. At the end of the Ice Age, no more than a few thousand foragers lived along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in the Jordan and Euphrates valleys. Within 2,000years, the human population of the region numbered in the tens of thousands, all as a result of village life and farming. Thanks to new environmental and archaeological discoveries, we nowknow something about this remarkable change in local life. Paragraph2:Pollen samples from freshwater lakes in Sria and elsewhere tell us forest cover expanded rapidly at the end of the Ice Age, for the southwestern Asian climate was still cooler and considerably wetter than today. Many areas were richer in animal and plant species than they are now, making them highly favorable for human occupation. About 9000 B.C., most human settlements lay in the area along the Mediterranean coast and in the Zagros Mountains of Iran and their foothills. Some local areas, like the Jordan River valley, the middle Euphrates valley, and some Zagros valleys, were more densely populated than elsewhere. Here more sedentary and more complex societies flourished. These people exploited the landscape intensively, foraging on hill slopes for wild cereal grasses and nuts, while hunting gazelle and other game on grassy lowlands and in river valleys. Their settlements contain exotic objects such as seashells, stone bowls, and artifacts made of obsidian (volcanic glass), all traded from afar. This considerable volume of intercommunity exchange brought a degree of social complexity in its wake. Paragraph3:Thanks to extremely fine-grained excavation and extensive use of flotation methods (through which seeds are recovered from soil samples), we know a great deal about the foraging practices of the inhabitants of Abu Hureyra in Syria?s Euphrates valley. Abu Hureyra was founded about 9500B.C., a small village settlement of cramped pit dwellings (houses dug partially in the soil) with reed roofs supported by wooden uprights. For the next 1,500 years, its inhabitants enjoyed a somewhat warmer and damper climate than today, living in a well-wooded steppe area where wild cereal grasses were abundant. They subsisted off spring migrations of Persian gazelles from the south. With such a favorable Paragraph4:location, about 300 to 400 people lived in a sizable, permanent settlement. They were no longer a series of small bands but lived in a large community with more elaborate social organization, probably grouped into clans of people of common descent. Paragraph5:The flotation samples from the excavations allowed botanists to study shifts in plantcollection habits as if they were looking through a telescope at a changing landscape. Hundreds of tiny plant remains show how the inhabitants exploited nut harvests in nearby pistachio and oak forests. However, as the climate dried up, the forests retreated from the vicinity of the settlement. The inhabitants turned to wild cereal grasses instead, collecting them by the thousands, while the percentage of nuts in the diet fell. By 8200B.C., drought conditions were so severe that the people abandoned their long-established settlement, perhaps dispersing into smaller camps. Paragraph6:Five centuries later, about 7700B.C., a new village rose on the mound. At first the inhabitants still hunted gazelle intensively. Then, about 7000 B.C., within the space of a few generations, they switched abruptly to herding domesticated goats and sheep and to growing einkorn, pulses, and other cereal grasses. Abu Hureyra grew rapidly until it covered nearly 30 acres. It was a close-knit community of rectangular, one-story mud-brick houses, joined by narrow lanes an courtyards, finally abandoned about 5000 B.C.. Many complex factors led to the adoption of the new economies, not only at Abu Hureyra, but at many other locations such as „Ain Ghazal, also in Syria, where goat toe bones showing the telltale marks of abrasion caused by foot tethering (binding)? testify to earl herding of domestic stock. 4 Paragraph1: 1. The word “momentous” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Numerous ?Regular ?Very important ?Very positive 2. Major climatic changes occurred by the end of the Ice Age in all of the following geographic areas EXCEPT ?temperate regions of Asia ?southwestern Asia ?North America ?Europe 3. The phrase “this remarkable change” in the passage refers to ?warming at the end of the Ice Age ?shifts in mountain snow lines ?the movement of people from farms to villages ?a dramatic increase in the population Paragraph2, 4. The word „exploited? in the passage is closest in meaning to ?explored ?utilized ?inhabited ?improved 5. Why does the author mention “seashells, stone bowls, and artifacts made of obsidian”? ?to give examples of objects obtained through trade with other societies. ?to illustrate the kinds of objects that are preserved in a cool climate ?to provide evidence that the organization of work was specialized ?to give examples of the artistic ability of local populations. Paragraph3, 6,The word “cramped” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?primitive ?secure ?extended ?confined 7 Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about the settlement of Abu Hureyra? ?The settlement was inhabited by small groups of people from nearby areas. ?Small bands of people migrated in and out of the settlement. ?The location of the settlement made permanent development difficult. ?The easy availability of food led to the growth of the settlement. 8 The word “shifts” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Effects ?Similarities ?Changes ?Exceptions 9 Paragraph 4 suggests that the people of Abu Hureyra abandoned their long established settlement because ?The inhabitants had cleared all the trees from the forests ?Wild cereal grasses took over pistachio and oak forests ?People wanted to explore new areas 5 ?Lack of rain caused food shortages 10 According to paragraph 5, after 7000B.C. the settlement of Abu Hureyra differed from earlier settlements at that location in all of the following EXCEPT ?The domestication of animals ?The intensive hunting of gazelle ?The size of the settlement ?The design of the dwellings Paragraph6 11 The word ”abruptly” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Informally ?Briefly ?Suddenly ?Surprisingly 12 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information I the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important was or leave out essential information. ?In many areas besides Abu Hureyra, complex factors led to new economies including the herding of domestic stock. ?In Ain Ghazal and Syria domestic stock was more important that it was at Abu Hureyra. ?Once early methods of herding animals improved, new economies were adopted. ?Many complex theories attempt to explain the early domestication of animals. Paragraph 1,The universal global warming at the end of the ice age had dramatic effects on temperate regions of Asia, Europe, and North America. Ice sheets retreated and sea level rose. ?The climatic changes in southwestern Asia were more subtle, in that they involved shifts in mountain snow lines, rainfall patterns, and vegetation cover. ?However, these same cycles of change and had momentous impacts on the sparse human populations of the region. ?At the end of the Ice Age, no more than a few thousand foragers lived along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in the Jordan and Euphrates valleys. Within 2,000years, the human population of the region numbered in the tens of thousands, all as a result of village life and farming. ?Thanks to new environmental and archaeological discoveries, we now know something about this remarkable change in local life. 13 Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. One of the major effects was the rapid growth of the human population itself. Where would the sentence best fit? 14 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. At the end of the Ice Age, patterns of human settlement changed in southwestern Asia. ? ? ? Answer choices 1. Wild cereals, grasses, and nuts were changed for exotic objects. 2. Changes in climatic conditions made southwestern Asia highly beneficial to human occupants. 3. Social organization in Abu Hureyra decreased as the population grew. 4. The favorable location of Abu Hureyra kept the city from experiencing hardship during drought years. 5. Within 2,000 years, populations in southwestern Asia greatly increased in number. 6. In rich, fertile areas permanent societies evolved to a high level of complexity. 6 FOSSIL PRESERVATION(TPO20-3) Paragraph1 When one considers the many ways by which organisms are completely destroyed after death, it is remarkable that fossils are as common as they are. Attack by scavengers and bacteria, chemical decay, and destruction by erosion and other geologic agencies make the odds against preservation very high. However, the chances of escaping complete destruction are vastly improved if the organism happens to have a mineralized skeleton and dies in a place where it can be quickly buried by sediment. Both of these conditions are often found on the ocean floors, where shelled invertebrates (organisms without spines) flourish and are covered by the continuous rain of sedimentary particles. Although most fossils are found in marine sedimentary rocks, they also are found in terrestrial deposits left by streams and lakes. On occasion, animals and plants have been preserved after becoming immersed in tar or quicksand, trapped in ice or lave flows, or engulfed by rapid falls of volcanic ash. Paragraph2 The term “fossil” often implies petrifaction, literally a transformation into stone. After the death of an organism, the soft tissue is ordinarily consumed by scavengers and bacteria. They empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. Indeed, unaltered shells of marine invertebrates are known from deposits over 100 million years old. In many marine creatures, however, the skeleton is composed of mineral variety of calcium carbonate called aragonite. Although aragonite has the same composition as the more familiar mineral known as calcite, it has a different crystal form, is relatively unstable, and in time changes to the more stable calcite. Paragraph3 Many other processes may after the shell of the clam or snail and enhance its chances for preservation. Water containing dissolved silica, calcium carbonate, or iron many circulate through the enclosing sediment and be deposited in cavities such as narrow cavities and canals in bone once occupied by blood vessels and nerves. In such cases, the original composition of the bone or shell remains, but the fossil is made harder and more durable. This addition of a chemically precipitated substance into precipitated is termed “permineralization.” Paragraph4 Petrifaction may also involve a simultaneous exchange of the original substance of a dead plant or animal with mineral matter of a different composition. This process is termed “replacement” because solutions have dissolved the original material and replaced it with an equal volume of the new substance. Replacement can be a marvelously precise process, so that details of shell ornamentation, tree rings in wood, and delicate structures in boneare accurately preserved. Paragraph5 Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin film of carbon. Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatileconstituents. The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette. Paragraph6 Although it is certainly true that the possession of hard parts enhances the prospect of preservation, organisms having soft tissues and organs are also occasionally preserved. Insects and even small invertebrates have been found preserved in the hardened resins of conifers and certain other trees. X-ray examination of thin slabs of roc sometimes reveals the ghostly outlines of tentacles, digestive tracts, and visual organs of a variety of marine creatures. Soft parts, including skin, hair, and viscera of ice age mammoths, have been preserved in frozen soil or in the oozing tar of oil seeps. Paragraph7 The probability that actual remains of soft tissue will be preserved is improved if the organism dies in an environment of rapid deposition and oxygen deprivation. Under such conditions, the destructive effects of bacteria are diminished. The middle Eocene Messel shale (from about 48 million years ago) of German accumulated in such an environment. The shale was deposited in an oxygen-deficient lake where lethal gases sometimes bubbled up and killed animals. Their remains accumulated on the floor of the lake and were then covered by clay and silt. Among the superbly preserved Messel fossils are insects with iridescent exoskeletons (hard outer coverings), frogs with skin and blood vessels intact, and even entire small mammals with preserved fur and soft tissue. 7 Paragraph 1: Q1 The word “agencies” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Combinations ?Problems ?Forces ?Changes Q2 In paragraph 1, what is the author?s purpose in providing examples of how organisms are destroyed? ?To emphasize how surprising it is that so many fossils exist ?To introduce a new geologic theory of fossil preservation ?To explain why the fossil record until now has remained incomplete ?To compare how fossils form on land and in water Q3 The word “terrestrial” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Land ?Protected ?Alternative ?Similar Paragraph 2: Q4 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change in the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ? When snail or clam shells are left behind, they must be empty in order to remain durable and resist dissolution. ? Although snail and clam shells are durable and resist dissolving, over time they slowly begin to change. ? Although the soft parts of snails or clams dissolve quickly, their hard shells resist dissolution for a long time. ? Empty snail or clam shells that are strong enough not to dissolve may stay in their original state for a long time. Q5 Why does the author mention “aragonite” in the passage? ?To emphasize that some fossils remain unaltered for millions of years. ?To contrast fossil formation in organisms with soft tissue and in organisms with hard shells ?To explain that some marine organisms must undergo chemical changes in order to fossilize ?To explain why fossil shells are more likely to survive than are fossil skeletons. Paragraph3: Q6 The word “enhance” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Control ?Limit ?Combine ?Increase Q7 Which of the following best explains the process of permineralization mentioned in paragraph 3? ?Water containing calcium carbonate circulates through a shell and deposits sediment. ?Liquid containing chemicals hardens an already existing fossil structure. ?Water passes through sediment surrounding a fossil and removes its chemical content. ?A chemical substance enters a fossil and changes its shape. Paragraph4: Q8 The word “precise” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Complex ?Quick ?Exact ?Reliable 8 Paragraph5: Q9 Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about the carbonization process? ?It is completed soon after an organism dies. ?It does not occur in hard-shell organisms. ?It sometimes allows soft-tissued organisms to be preserved with all their parts. ?It is a more precise process of preservation than is replacement. Paragraph6: Q10 The word “prospect” in the passage is closest in meaning to ?Completion ?Variety ?Possibility ?Speed Paragraph7: Q11 According to paragraph 7, how do environments containing oxygen affect fossil preservation? ?They increase the probability that soft-tissued organisms will become fossils. ?They lead to more bacteria production. ?They slow the rate at which clay and silt are deposited. ?They reduce the chance that animal remains will be preserved. Q12 According to the passage, all of the following assist preservation EXCEPT ?The presence of calcite in an organism?s skeleton ?The presence of large open areas along an ocean floor ?The deposition of a fossil n sticky substances such as sap or tar ?The rapid burial of an organism under layers of silt Paragraph5, ?Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin film of carbon. ?Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. ?The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette. ?But the evidence of past organic life is not limited to petrifaction. Q13. Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. But the evidence of past organic life is not limited to petrifaction. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square[?]to insert the sentence in the passage. Q14 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The remains of ancient life are amazingly well preserved in the form of fossils. ? ? ? Answer choices 1. Environmental characteristics like those present on ocean floors increase the likelihood that plant and animal fossils will occur. 2. Fossils are more likely to the preserved in shale deposits than in deposits of clay and silt. 3. The shells of organisms can be preserved by processes of chemical precipitation or mineral exchange. 4. Freezing enables the soft parts of organisms to survive longer than the hard parts. 5. Comparatively few fossils are found in the terrestrial deposits of streams and lakes. 6. Thin films of carbon may remain as an indication 9 Geothermal Energy(TPO21-1) Earth?s internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics, continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a [2]practical[/2] form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. {13}?{/13}The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. {13}?{/13}The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose. {13}?{/13} By far the most [3]abundant[/3] form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80? to 180? centigrade. {13}?{/13}Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat. Geothermal reservoirs with temperatures above 180? centigrade are useful for generating electricity. They occur primarily in regions of recent volcanic activity as hot, dry rock; natural hot water; or natural steam. The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to reach deep rocks heated née the recent activity of molten rock material. The world?s largest supply of natural steam occurs at The Geysers, 120 kilometers north of San Francisco, California. In the 1990s enough electricity to meet about half the needs of San Francisco was being generated there. This facility was then in its third decade of production and was beginning to show signs of decline, perhaps because of over development. By the late 1990s some 70 geothermal electric-generating plants were in operation in California, Utah, Nevada, and Hawaii, generating enough power to supply about a million people. Eighteen countries now generate electricity using geothermal heat. Extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks present a more difficult problem: the rocks must be fractured to permit the circulation of water, and the water must be provided arterially. The rocks are fractured by water pumped down at very high pressures. Experiments are under way to develop technologies for [9]exploiting[/9] this resource. Like most other energy sources, geothermal energy presents some environmental problems. The surface of the ground can sink if hot groundwater is withdrawn without being replaced. In addition, water heated geothermal can contain salts and toxic materials dissolved from the hot rock. These waters present a disposal problem if they are not returned to the ground from which they were removed. The contribution of geothermal energy to the world?s energy future is difficult to estimate. [11]Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir[/11]. However, in many places (for example, California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of Africa) the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the economics of production. At present, we can make efficient use of only naturally occurring hot water or steam deposits. Although the potential is enormous, it is likely that in the near future geothermal energy can make important local contributions only where the resource is close to the user and the economics are favorable, as they are in California, New Zealand, and Iceland. Geothermal energy probably will not make large-scale contributions to the world energy budget until well into the twenty-first century, if ever. 1. According to the processes described in paragraph 1, what is the relationship between radioactivity and the steam produced by geothermal heat? ?Geothermally heated steam is produced when water is exposed to radioactivity deep underground. ?When water is introduced into holes drilled thousands of feet in the ground, it becomes radioactive and turns to steam. ?Radioactivity heats Earth's interior rock, which in turn can heat water to the point it becomes steam. ?When a reservoir of steam in subsurface rock is produced by radioactivity, it is said to be geothermally heated. 2. The word "practical" in the passage is closest in meaning to 10 ?usable ?plentiful ?economical ?familiar 3. The word "abundant" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?economical ?familiar ?plentiful ?useful 4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about heat reservoirs with a temperature in the range of 80? to 180? centigrade? ?They are under international control. ?They are more common than reservoirs that have a higher temperature. ?Few of them produce enough heat to warm large industrial spaces. ?They are used to generate electricity. 5. According to paragraph 3, what is the connection between underground faults and naturally occurring steam? ?Underground faults enable the heat from molten-rock material to escape upward to regions where it can heat surface water enough to produce steam. ?Underground faults are created by steam that is produced in geothermal reservoirs deep inside Earth. ?Underground faults create spaces in which natural steam is sometimes trapped. ?Underground faults allow surface water to reach deep rocks that are hot enough to turn it into steam. 6. In paragraph 3, why does the author mention that in the 1990s The Geysers was in its third decade of production? ?To provide the historical context of the geothermal production of electricity in the United States ?To imply that The Geysers was the first geothermal site to be put into production in California ?To help explain the signs of decline shown by The Geysers ?To explain why 70 new geothermal sites were put into electricity production in the late 1990s 7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraphs 2 and 3 about geothermal reservoirs? ?Volcanic heat is associated only with geothermal reservoirs that have a temperature over 180? centigrade. ?More countries produce power from geothermal reservoirs than use them for heating buildings. ?Most geothermal reservoirs are suitable for producing electricity. ?A higher geothermal reservoir temperature is needed to generate electricity than is needed to heat homes. 8. According to paragraph 4, extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks is difficult in part because ?the underground rock must be fractured before heat can be removed from it ?the water above the rock is under very high pressure ?the rock breaks apart when water is pumped into it ?the water circulated through the rock must be much cooler than the rock itself 9. The word "exploiting" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?locating ?increasing ?making use of ?estimating the size of 10. How is the problem that the surface may sink related to the problem that water heated geothermally may contain toxic materials? ?Both problems could be solved by returning groundwater that is removed from an underground heat reservoir back to the reservoir after heat is extracted from it. ?The problem of sinking is more difficult to solve than is the problem of toxic materials. 11 ?Land at the surface sinks because the rock beneath the surface is weakened when salts and toxic materials are removed from it in the process of extracting geothermal energy. ?Both problems are caused by the fact that the hot groundwater in a heat reservoir dissolves the rock, which weakens the rock and makes the water toxic with salt. 11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ?Heat flows through solid rock very slowly, so it takes a very long time for geological processes to produce a reservoir of geothermal energy. ?Geothermal energy is not renewable because heat flows very slowly through solid rock into or out of a heat reservoir. ?The heat quickly removed from a heat reservoir is replaced so slowly by geological processes that geothermal energy is not practically speaking, renewable. ?In most cases, heat travels into a heat reservoir so slowfy that it is a much quicker process to remove the heat from a reservoir than to replace it. 12. In paragraph 6, the author implies that in California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, and the rift valleys of Africa the potential size of the geothermal resource is so large that ?it might be economically worth developing these sites even though geothermal energy is not renewable ?these sites will be the first geothermal energy sites to be developed witb new technology ?these sites are likely to make a large-scale contribution to the world energy budget in the twenty-first century ?it does not matter whether they have naturally occurring deposits of hot water or steam 13(Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. In either case, the heated water will usually be under considerable pressure, and so may have a temperature that is well above its sea-level boiling point of 100? centigrade.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. ? ? ? ? 14(Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THERR answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The remains of ancient life are amazingly well preserved in the form of fossils. ? ? ? Answer Choices: 1. Heat reservoirs with a temperature from 80? to 180? centigrade can be used, as in France and Iceland, to heat buildings. 2. A number of countries now use geothermal reservoirs that contain water or steam above 180? centigrade to generate electricity. 3. Most heat reservoirs with a temperature above 180? centigrade cannot be used for energy because they are usually too close to recent volcanic activity. 4. The sinking of land above heat reservoirs and other environmental problems arise when water is pumped into a heat reservoir under high pressure. 5. Experiments are under way to determine if geothermally heated waters could be used as a source of certain minerals that have been dissolved out of hot rocks deep within Earth. 6. A number of issues, including how to extract heat from reservoirs that do not have a natural supply of water, will significantly limit the use of geothermal energy for the foreseeable future. 12 The Origins of Agriculture (TPO21-2) How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. {13}?{/13}Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. {13}?{/13}To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. {13}?{/13}While hunter-gatherers always had the [1]option[/1] of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. {13}?{/13}Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers. Traditionally, it was believed that the transition to agriculture was the result of a worldwide population crisis. It was argued that once hunter-gatherers had occupied the whole world, the population started to grow everywhere and food became scarce; agriculture would have been a solution to this problem. We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. The idea of a world population crisis is [3]therefore[/3] unlikely, although population pressure might have arisen in some areas. Climatic changes at the end of the glacial period 13,000 years ago have been proposed to account for the emergence of farming. [5]The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources.[/5] There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely. It would appear that the instability of the climatic conditions led populations that had originally been nomadic to settle down and develop a sedentary style of life, which led in turn to population growth and to the need to increase the amount of food available. Farming originated in these conditions. Later on, it became very difficult to change because of the significant expansion of these populations. It could be argued, however, that these conditions are not sufficient to explain the origins of agriculture. [8]Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed.[/8] It is archaeologist Steven Mithen's thesis, brilliantly developed in his book The Prehistory of the Mind (1996), that approximately 40,000 years ago the human mind developed cognitive fluidity, that is, the integration of the specializations of the mind: technical, natural history (geared to understanding the behavior and distribution of natural resources), social intelligence, and the linguistic capacity. Cognitive fluidity explains the appearance of art, religion, and sophisticated speech. Once humans possessed such a mind, they were able to find an [9]imaginative[/9] solution to a situation of severe economic crisis such as the farming dilemma described earlier. Mithen proposes the existence of four mental elements to account for the emergence of farming: (1) the ability to develop tools that could be used intensively to harvest and process plant resources; (2) the tendency to use plants and animals as the medium to acquire social prestige and power; (3) the tendency to develop "social relationships" with animals structurally similar to those developed with people—specifically, the ability to think of animals as people (anthropomorphism) and of people as animals (totemism); and (4) the tendency to manipulate plants and animals. The fact that some societies domesticated animals and plants, discovered the use of metal tools, became literate, and developed a state should not make us forget that others developed pastoralism or horticulture (vegetable gardening) but remained illiterate and at low levels of productivity; a few entered the modern period as hunting and gathering societies. It is anthropologically important to inquire into the conditions that made some societies adopt agriculture while others remained hunter-gatherers or horticulturalists. However, it should be kept in mind that many societies that knew of agriculture more or less consciously avoided it. Whether Mithen's explanation is satisfactory is open to [11]contention[/11], and some authors have recently emphasized the importance of other factors. 13 1. The word "option" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?choice ?benefit ?idea ?experience 2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are advantages of hunting and gathering over agriculture EXCEPT: ?It is a healthier lifestyle. ?It requires less knowledge of plants and animals. ?It does not need storage capabilities. ?It is not tied to any specific location. 3. The word "therefore" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?in theory ?obviously ?frequently ?as a result 4. Which of the following best describes the way paragraph 2 is organized? ?A possible explanation for a phenomenon is presented and then criticized ?Two similar ways of accounting for a puzzling fact are considered. ?Early societies' response to a problem is contrasted with contemporary societies' response. ?A prehistoric development is first explained in traditional terms and then in contemporary terms. 5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ?The resources needed by the growing hunting and gathering population increased rapidly once temperatures rose. ?Dramatic temperature increases and the simultaneous growth of the hunting and gathering population led to the need for more resources. ?Higher temperatures led to the existence of increased resources, thus enabling the hunting and gathering population to grow. ?The dramatic temperature increase occurred during the few years when abundant resources allowed the hunting and gathering population to grow. 6. According to paragraph 3, the abundance of resources fluctuated sharply after the end of the glacial period because ?locally abundant resources were quickly exhausted by hunter-gatherers ?the temperature became much higher in some areas over others ?different types of plants and animals became available as the climate changed ?the amount of rainfall varied radically from one period to the next 7. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that it was difficult for people to change from farming back to hunting and gathering because ?people had become more used to different types of food ?climatic conditions were no longer favorable for hunting and gathering ?populations had become too large to be supported by hunting and gathering ?the farmer's sedentary life was easier than the hunter-gatherer's nomadic life 8. Why does the author state that "Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed"? ?To suggest that climate change had occurred long before the development of agriculture ?To argue that climate change does not properly explain why agriculture developed ?To challenge the assumption that agriculture developed only in some parts of the world ?To question the claim that climate change occurred at the time when agriculture developed 9. The word "imaginative" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?complex ?creative 14 ?immediate ?reliable 10. According to paragraph 5, Steven Mithen believes that all of the following contributed to the emergence of farming EXCEPT ?the development of a mind flexible enough to come up with solutions to complex problems ?the tendency to use plants and animals to acquire power ?the tendency to emphasize the differences between animals and people ?the ability to make tools that could be used for the large-scale harvesting of plants 11. The word "contention" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?investigation ?improvement ?debate ?interpretation 12. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is a weakness of Mithen's explanation? ?It does not clearly distinguish agriculture from pastoralism and horticulture. ?It fails to explain why some societies adopted agriculture while others did not. ?It explains the domestication of plants and animate but not the development of metal tools. ?It overlooks the fact that illiteracy and low productivity remain problems even today 13. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Because humans had built up this knowledge as hunter-gatherers, it is logical to conclude that over time they would have become extremely efficient. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. ? ? ? ? 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THERR answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. It is unclear why hunter-gatherers in different parts of the world independently developed agriculture at roughly the same time. Answer Choices 1. One obstacfe to the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to the sedentary lifestyle required by agriculture was that hunter-gatherers had not developed storage techniques. 2. It seems unlikely that agriculture emerged in response to a food shortage brought on by a worldwide population crisis that developed once the whole world was occupied. 3. The origins of agriculture maybe linked to climate change at the end of the last ice age, but this does not explain why earlier climatic instability had not led to agriculture. 4. The only available means of understanding the social organization and technical abilities of ancient hunter-gatherer societies is the study of contemporary hunter-gatherers. 5. One recent theory suggests that the invention of agriculture was made possible by the integration of various mental capacities in the human mind. 6. Little is known about why only some societies that adopted agriculture rapidly progressed to using metal tools, becoming literate, and developing a state. 15 Autobiographical Memory (TPO21-3) Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? {27}?{/27}Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. {27}?{/27}The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of [15]ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. {27}?{/27}Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one?s {/27}Between ages three and four, children begin to own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. {27}? give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point? Perhaps the explanation goes back to some ideas raised by influential Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget-namely, that children under age two years represent events in a qualitatively different from than older children do. According to this line of thought, the verbal abilities that blossom in the two year old allow events to be coded in a form radically different from the action-based codes of the infant. Verbal abilities of one year olds are, in fact, related to their memories for events one year later. When researchers had one year olds imitate an action sequence one year after they first saw it, there was correlation between the children?s verbal skills at the time they first saw the event and their success on the later memory task. However, even children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering the event, thus, memories may be facilitated by but are not dependent on those verbal skills. Another suggestion is that before children can talk about past events in their lives, they need to have a [19]reasonable[/19] evident understanding of the self as a psychological entity. The development of an understanding of the self becomes between the first and second years of life and shows rapid [20]elaboration[/20] in subsequent years. The realization that the physical self has continuity in time, according to this hypothesis, lays the foundation for the emergence of autobiographical memory. A third possibility is that children will not be able to tell their own “life story “until they understand something about the general form stones take, that is, the structure of narratives knowledge about narratives arises from social interactions, particularly the storytelling that children experience from parents and the attempts parents make to talk with children about past events in their lives. When parents talk with children about “what we did today” or “last week” or “last year,” they guide the children?s formation of a framework for talking about the past. They also provide children with reminders about the memory and relay the message that memories are valued as part of the cultural experience. It is interesting to note that some studies show Caucasian American children have earlier childhood memories than Korean children do. Furthermore, other studies show that Caucasian American mother-child pairs talk about past events three times more often than do Korean mother-child pairs. Thus, the types of social experiences children have do factor into the development of autobiographical memories. A final suggestion is that children must begin to develop a “theory of mind”-an awareness of the concept of mental states (feelings, desires, beliefs, and thoughts), their own and those of others-before they can talk about their own past memories. Once children become capable of answering such questions as “What does it mean to remember?” and “What does it mean to know something?” improvements in memory seem to occur. It may be that the developments just described are intertwined with the influence one another. Talking with parents about the past may enhance the development of the self-concept, for example, as well as help the child understand what it means to “remember.” No doubt the ability to talk about one?s past represents memory of a different level of complexity than simple recognition or recall. 1. The word "ample" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?surprising 16 ?convincing ?plentiful ?questionable 2. According to paragraph 1, infantile amnesia has intrigued psychologists because ?the ability to recount memories prior to three years of age seems to be connected to intelligence in adulthood ?psychologists do not understand why some people are able to recount memories from before the age of three years, while others are not able do so ?psychologists do not understand the connection between infantile amnesia and autobiographical memory ?although psychologists have evidence that infants have memory abilities, most people cannot remember life events that happened before the age of three years 3. According to paragraph 1, what is the evidence that a child has developed autobiographical memory? ?The child is able to remember past events from before the age of three years. ?The child is able to describe past events in a sufficiently lengthy and cohesive manner. ?The child is aware that he or she does not remember experiences from before the age of three years. ?The child is able to give a basic description of the nature of autobiographical memory. 4. In paragraph 2, why does the author provide the information that children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering a past event? ?To provide evidence that memories do not depend only upon verbal skills ?To challenge the idea that one year olds are too young to form memories ?To argue that the memory of one year olds depends only on action-based codes ?To suggest that Piaget later revised his findings on the correlation between memory and verbal ability 5. The word "reasonable" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?consistent ?sufficient ?apparent ?deep 6. The word "elaboration" in the passage is closest in meaning to ?development ?specialization ?use ?transformation 7.According to paragraph 3, what is the relationship between autobiographical memory and the development of an understanding of the self? ?Autobiographical memory aids in the development of an understanding of the self. ?Children possess an understanding of the self when they can talk about past events in their lives. ?The realization that the self continues through time may aid in the onset of autobiographical memory. ?The development of autobiographical memory helps children gain an understanding of their roles in their social relationships. 8.All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as ways in which parents help their children understand the structure of narratives EXCEPT ?talking with their children about past events ?telling stories to their children ?having their children repeat stories back to them ?showing their children that they think memories are important 9.According to paragraph 4, the studies of Caucasian American and Korean children suggest which of the following? 17 ?Autobiographical memories develop similarly across all cultures. ?Parents from different cultures tell their children different kinds of stories about the past. ?Children's pleasure in hearing stories varies from culture to culture. ?The kinds of interactions chiIdren have with their parents affect the development of autobiographical memories. 10.According to paragraph 5, what evidence is there that a "theory of mind" is a factor in the development of autobiographical memory? ?Even children who are not aware of their mental states are still able to talk about past events. ?Autobiographicat memory decreases when a chiId's feelings and mental state are upset. ?Older children who are unable to achieve awareness of mental states lack autobiographical memory. ?Children's memory of past events grows once children can answer questions about what it means to know and remember 11. The organization of the passage can best be described as ?the presentation of an argument followed by the evidence for and against it ?a description of a phenomenon followed by several possible theories about how it develops ?the definition of a psychological term followed by a history of its usage ?an explanation of a process followed by a discussion of its practical applications 12.The passage supports which of the following statements about the development of autobiographical memory? ?It is unlikely that a single factor is responsible for the development of autobiographical memory. ?Jean Piaget was the first psychologist to understand the development of autobiographical memory. ?Understanding the development of autobiographical memory will help psychologists eliminate infant amnesia ?Understanding what it means to remember is the most important factor in the development of autobiographical memory. 13(Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. It is unlikely that this memory will be from the first two years of life. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. ? ? ? ? 14(Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THERR answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The ability to construct autobiographical memories—coherent narratives about events from one's past—is probably the joint product of several social and intellectual developments. Answer Choices: 1. Although children are capable of simple recognition and recall very earfy in life, they do not develop the capacity for autobiographical memory until the age of three or four years. 2. Verbal skills and familiarity with narrative structures probably aid in the construction of autobiographical memories. 3. Children's earliest autobiographical memories are usually about social interactions with parents. 4. Research suggests that infantile amnesia occurs in some cultures but not in others and may be li nked to children's social experiences. 5. The development of autobiographical memory allows children to appreciate the fact that memories are an important part of their cultural experience. 6. Children who have acquired a concept of the self and of various mental states are generally able to talk about their own past memories. 18