agmatics的演示课件

PragmaticsFlowerI.IntroductionWhatispragmatics?Pramaticscanbedefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuseandlinguisticcommunication.Whydoweneedpragmaticssincewehavegrammaticalanalysis?Afterwehavedonegrammaticalanalysisofasentence,thereisstillsomeaspectofmeaninguncoveredbyouranalysis.Example:Thegrammaticalanalysisof"Hewenttotownyesterday"doesnottelluswhoheis,whichtownorwhenyesterday.Inotherwords,therearestillthingsundetermined.Dependingonthecontext,"he"canbeanybody,anymale."Town"canrefertoanyplacebigenoughtobecalledtown.And"yesterday"canrefertoanydayinthepast.Asaresult,thesentencemusthaveperformedmanyfunctions.Fromthisbriefdiscussion,wecanseethatthecontextofasituationinwhichasentenceisusedcontributealottoitsmeaningwhichcannotbeaccountedforinpuregrammaticalanalysis.II.Context&MeaningThenotionofcontextisparticularlysignificantinpragmaticsbecauseitcontributesalottothemeaningofanutterance.Inasensepragmaticsstudieshowcontextualfeaturesdetermineorinfluencetheinterpretationofutterances.Forexample,therewillbeseveralpossibleinterpretationstotheutterance"Johnislikeafish"inisolation.ButifitissaidwhenJohnisswimming,itprobablymeans"Johnswimswell".Ifitissaidataparty,itwillbetakentomeanthat"Johncandrinkalotofwine",etc.Let'slookbackintoourChinese,thecontextisalsoveryimportant.Beholdthesedialogues:“小明，帮我擦下窗户好么?"“我擦!!我不擦!!”问：小明擦不擦窗户?“小明，今晚上全队去听讲座!你去不去??”“我去!!我不去!!”问：小明去不去听讲座?“小明，今天上书法课用不用带笔啊?”“带毛笔啊!”问：小明的意思是带不带笔?“小明，你的睫毛好漂亮，真的假的？”“假的。”“真的么？”“真的”问：小明的睫毛是真的假的？客服小姐：“小明你是要几等座？”“你们一共有几等？”“特等，一等，二等，等等，二等要多等一等。”“我看下，等一等。”“别等了，再等一等也没了。”“那不等了就这个吧。”问：小明最终买了几等座？领导：“你这是什么意思？”小明：“没什么意思。意思意思。”领导：“你这就不够意思了。”小明：“小意思，小意思。”领导：“你这人真有意思。”小明：“其实也没有别的意思。”领导：“那我就不好意思了。”小明：“是我不好意思。”问：以上“意思”分别是什么意思？Moreover,everylanguageintheworldhasDEICTICS,whichidentifyobjects,personsandeventsintermsoftheirrelationstothespeakerinspaceandtime.Muchofthemeaningofdeictictermsdependsonthespecificcontextofsituationinwhichtheyareused.InEnglishdeicticsmaybegroupedinto3categories.1.persondeictics:usedtoidentifyparticipantsinthediscourse."I"and"We"aretorefertothespeakerand"you"thehearer.Thethirdpersonpronounsareusedtorefertopeopleotherthanparticipants.2.placedeicticssuchas"here"and"this"toiindicatethespatialrelationsbetweenthespeakerandthereferredobjectorplace.Someverbsalsodenotesthespatialrelationsbetweenthespeaker,thehearerandtheplacedesignated,suchas"come/go"and"bring/take".3.timedeicticsusedtoindicatetimerelationssuchas"now"and"then","yesterday","lastnight","nextyear".Thecharacteristicsofthesetermsarethattheirthoroughinterpretationissubjecttotheirspecialcontext.Itispossibletospecifythetimefor"then"or"now"unlessweknowtheexacttimewhentheutteranceismade.III.SpeechacttheorySpeechacttheoryisproposebyJohnLangshawAustin(1962)andJohnSearle(1969).Basicallytheybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto"dothings",toperformacts.Allsentences,inadditiontomeaningwhatevertheymean,performspecificactionsor"doing"thingsthroughhavingspecificforces.Austinsuggests3basicsensesinwhichinsayingsomethingoneisdoingsomething,and3kindsofactsareperformedsimultaneously:1)LocutionaryAct:theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference;2)IllocutionaryAct:themakingofastatement,offer,promise,etc.inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit;3)PerlocutionaryAct:thebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudiencebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstancesofutterance.Example:Supposethespeakersays"It'scoldinhere".Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaning"it'scoldinhere".Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoshutthewindowanditsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer'sshuttingthewindowortherefusaltocomplywiththerequest.Thelocutionofanutteranceisactuallyitsliteralmeaning.Theillocutionofanutteranceisthespeaker'scommunicativeintentionorthefunctionitisintendedtoperform.Theperlocutionofanutterancecanbeasthesameastheillocutionwhenitisrecognizedandsatisfied,orverydifferentfromitwhenitisnotrecognizedorwhenitisignored.Forexample,whentheillocutionisaninvitation,theperlocutioncaneitherbeanacceptanceorarefusal,dependingonsocialandpersonalfactors.a.IllocutionaryactsWhatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryacts.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Itisalsodesignedtoshowcoherenceinseeminglyincoherentconversations.Ex.A:That'sthephone.(1)B:I'minthebathroom.(2)A:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyunconnectedconversationisverycoherentonaspeech-actlevel,andthatinsayingthingspeopleareinfact"doing"things.b.TypesofillocutionaryactsSearlesuggests5basiccategoriesofillocutionaryactsasfollows:Assertives（陈述）Directives（指令）Commissives（承诺）Expressives（ 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 达）Declarations（宣布）AssertivesSentencesthatcommitthespeakertothetruthofsth.Typicalcasesare"Ithinkthefilmismoving"and"I'mcertainthathehadgotit".Thedegreeofcommitmentvariesfromstatementtostatement.Thecommitmentissmallin"Iguesshe'dgotit"butverystrongin"Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit".DirectivesSentencesbywhichthespeakertriestogetthehearertodosth,"Ibegyoutogivemesomeadvice"and"Iorderyoutoleaverightnow"arebothattemptstogetsomethingdonebythehearer.Amongtheverbsthatcandenotethisgroupare"ask","request","plead","entreat","command","advise",etc.CommissivesSentencesthatcommitthespeakertosomefutureaction.Promisesandoffersarecharacteristicofthisgroup.Interestingly,warningisalsoacommissive,as"IfyousmokeagainI'llbeatyoutodeath",becauseitalsocommitsthespeakertodoingsth.ExpressivesSentencesthatexpressthespeaker'spsychologicalstateaboutsth.Verbstypicallyusedforthiscategoryare"thank","congratulate","apologize","welcome","deplore"andsoon.DeclarationsSentencesthatbringaboutimmediatechangeintheexistingstateofaffairs.Assoonasanemployersaystoanemployee"Youarefired",theemployeeloseshis/herjob.Verbsoftenusedfordeclarationsare"name","christen","nominate","point","declare",etc.c.IndirectspeechactsOnegroupofsentenceswhichspeechacttheoryisconcernedwitharethosesentencesthatperformoneillocutionaryactindirectlybyperforminganother,thatis,INDIRECTSPEECHACTS."Canyoupassthesalt,please?"isbothaquestionaboutthehearer'sabilitytopassthesaltandarequestofhimtopassthesalt.Theproblemhereishowitispossibleforthespeakertosayonethingandmeansomethingelse,andhowitispossibleforthehearertounderstandtheindirectspeechact.Itissuggestedthatincaseslikethismuchisreliedonthesharedbackgroundinformationandthegeneralpowersofrationalityandinferenceonthepowerofthehearer.Ex.X:Let'sgotothemoviestonight.Y:Ihavetostudyforanexam.InordertoworkoutthatY'sutteranceisarefusal,Xhastogothroughaprocessofinferencelikethis."IhavemakeaproposaltoYandarelevantresponsemustbeoneofacceptanceorrejectionorfurtherdiscussion.Buthisreplywasnoneofthese,sohisillocutionmustbedifferentfromtheliteralmeaning.Iknowthatstudyingforanexamtakesalotoftimeandgoingtomoviesalsotakesalotoftime.Heprobablycannotdobothinoneevening.Probablyhisprimaryillocutionaryactistorejectmyproposal."Inpractice,noonewouldconsciouslygothroughthisprocess;butthisissupposedtobeinthewayindirectsppechactswork.Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.Theirindirectnesshascertaincharactersticsthattendtogroupsentencesofrequestintothefollowingtypes:Group1Sentencesconcerningthehearer'sabilitytodosth.:ex.Canyourunanother5,000meters?Couldyourunawayfromthetalonsofthechengguan?Group2Sentencesconcerningthespeaker'swishorwantthatthehearerwilldosth.:Iwouldlikeyoutofetchmycellphonefromthecompany.Iwouldappreciateifyoucouldsaveaseatforme.I'dratheryoudidn'tbelateanymore.I'dbeverymuchobligedifyouwouldgototheQixiaMountainwithme.Group3Sentencesconcerningthehearer'sdoingsth.:Wouldyoukindlygetoffmyfoot?Won'tyoustopmakingthatnoise?Group4Sentencesconcerningthehearer'sdesireorwillingnesstodosth.:Doyouwanttogotothelibrarywithmenow?Woulditbeconvenientforyoutocomeovertoplay"Sanguosha",theboardgameonFridayafternoon?Woulditbetoomuchtroubleforyoutotakemybagback?Group5Sentencesconcerningreasonsfordoingsth.:Youshouldwritetothemeverynowandthen.Mustyoumakethatnoisewheneveryouarereading?You'dbetterbookthetickets2weeksinadvance.Sometimeswehavesentencesthathavemorethanoneoftheseelements,withoneinsideanother:"WoulditbetoomuchtroubleifIsuggestedthatyoucouldpossiblymakealittlelessnoise?"d.DifficultiesinspeechacttheoryOftenanutterancedoesnotperformonlyoneact,buttwoorthreeacts,anditisnotalwayseasytodecidewhatactoractsanutteranceperforms.Ex.Ifamothersaystoachild"Isthatyourcoatonthefloor?"Sometimestwounrelatedactsareperformedbyoneutteranceanditislefttothehearertochoose.Ex:A:Theysayit'stheclevereststudentswhoflunk.B:YoushouldbeO.K.then.reassurance&desiretomakeajokeTherearealsocaseswhenoneutteranceperformstwodifferentactsfordifferenthearers.Ex:(XiaomingistalkingtoXiaofangonthetelephoneandthereisagroupofpeoplemakingalotofnoiseintheroom)Xiaoming:Sorry,there'salotofnoiseatthisend.apologytoXiaofang(whoacceptstheapology)andreprimandthecrowd(whoapologizeandstopmakingnoise)Onotheroccasions,thespeakerseemstohaveachainofmotivesinasingleutteranceandthehearerhastomakethedecisionofhowtorespond.Ex.Huaband:It'sgettinglate,dear.Wife:(a)It'sonly11:27,darling.(b)ButI'mhavingsuchfun.(c)Doyouwanttogo?(d)Aren'tyouenjoyingyourself?Thankyouallforyourattention!