课件2._phonetics

Chapter2PhonologyLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds----soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.WhyhumancanproducesomanysoundsThehumanvocaltractshowsaloweringofthelarynxwithrespecttoitspositioninotherprimatesThishasconsequencesforspeech,andalsotheconsequencethathumanschokemoreeasilythanotherprimatesdoWhileithasbeensuggestedthatthisisanevolutionaryadaptationthathighlightstheimportanceofspeech--thecaseoftheNeanderthals--itseemstobethecasethatotherspecieshavethisanatomicalfeatureaswell.Phonetics----Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.[p]bilabial,stop.ThreebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics----fromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphonetics----fromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.Spectrographsareusedtostudythepropertiesofsounds.Pahvs.Bah(anexample)b:voiced(bah),p:voiceless(pah)ba:vocalcordvibratesrightaway,pahas80msdelayWhathappensinbetween?Nohybrids:eitherbaorpa,thresholdaround25msArticulatoryphoneticsSpeechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngealcavity----thethroat;Theoralcavity----themouth;Nasalcavity----thenose.IllustrationThediagramattherightillustratestheseregionsinanothersagittalviewThediagramofspeechorgansLipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavityOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds----AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription----usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clear[l],[pit]Narrowtranscription----usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.dark[l],aspirated[p]NotationforspeechsoundsAswewillseebelow,spellingdoesnotprovideapreciseguidetospeechsounds(especiallyinEnglish)LinguistsuseastandardizedsystemofnotationcalledtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)torepresentspeechsoundsinaconsistentfashionThisuniformsystemcanbeusedtorepresentsoundsfromanyoftheworld’slanguagesTranscriptionTranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)BreakawayfromspellingIPAisonetoonesound-symbolcorrespondenceTranscriptionBroadtranscriptionNarrowtranscription(usesdiacritics)TheIPAForfulldetailsontheIPAyoucanvisitthewebpageofthehttp://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.htmlaffricatetSdZSomemajorarticulatoryvariables----dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:Voicing----voiced&voicelessNasality----nasal&non-nasalAspiration-----aspirated&unaspiratedClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds----Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:VowelsConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.Classificationofconsonants----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:ThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulationThemannerofarticulationstops/plosives:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];fricatives:[f],[v],[s],[z],[W],[T],[F],[V],[h];affricates:[tF],[dV];liquids:[l](lateral),[r];nasals:[m],[n],[N];glides/semivowels:[w],[j].Theplaceofarticulationbilabial:[p],[b],[m],[w];labiodental:[f],[v];dental:[W],[T];alveolar:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];palatal:[F],[V],[tF],[dV],[j];velar:[k],[g],[N];glottal:[h].TheplaceofarticulationBilabial;Labiodental;Dentalorinterdental;Alveolar;Palatoalveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelarGlottalStopsorplosivesVL[p][t][k]VD[b][d][g]Frica-tivesVL[f][W][s][F][h]VD[v][T][z][V]Affri-catesVL([tF])[tF]VD([dV])[dV]NasalsVD[m][n][N]LiquidsVD[l],[r]GlidesVD[w][j]Classificationofvowels----Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:Monophthongsorpure/singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowelsMonophthongsorpure/singlevowels----Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:frontvowels:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B];centralvowels:[E:],[E],[Q];backvowels:[u:],[u],[C:],[C],[B:].AccordingtotheopennessofthemouthClose:[I:],[I],[u:],[u].Semi-close:[e],[E:];Semi-open:[E],[C];Open:[A],[B],[C],[B:],[Q];Thediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliproundingrounded:[u:],[u],[C:],[C];unrounded:[I:],[I],[e],[Z],[A],[B],[E:],[E],[Q],[B:].Accordingtothelengthofthevowelslong:[I:],[E:],[u:],[C:],[B:]short:[I],[e],[Z],[A],[E],[Q],[B],[u],[C].Diphthongs/glidingvowels[ei],[ai],[aU],[EU],[Ri],[iE],[ZE],[UE].Exercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeAglide:onewaryolkrushUnderlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:AfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasaltrainbangleaflimbAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate:racksuchridgeboozeUnderlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:Acentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfatherDescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereitherPhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.Phonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,allophonePhoneAphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].PhonemeAphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].AllophoneAllophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.PhonemiccontrastPhonemiccontrast----differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].ComplementarydistributionComplementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].Real-lifeanalogyofcomplementarydistributionTwopeopleoroneperson?DoyoueverseeSupermanandClarkKentinthesameenvironment?Supermanisalwaysfoundintheenvironmentofanemergency.NoEmergencyClarkKentisseenintheenvironmentwhenthereisnoemergency.Wecanconclude:ClarkKentandSupermanaredifferentidentitiesofthesameperson.=ClarkKentandSupermanarelikeallophones.Theyarenoncontrastive.Theyappearincomplementarydistribution.Justasallophonesaredifferentformsofthesamephoneme,ClarkKentandSupermanaredifferentrealizationsofthesameperson./Superman/[ClarkKent][Superman]/p/[ph][p]MinimalpairMinimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.SomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionruleSequentialrulesSequentialrules----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.SequentialrulesIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)  thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)  thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)  thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*[N]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄语……”ArticulatoryProcesses-AssimilationAssimilation-whenthefeaturesorcharacteristicsofonesoundspreadtoanothersoundRegressiveassimilation-iftwosoundsaretogetherinsequenceXY,thensomecharacteristicofYspreadstoX(backwards).Vowelnasalizationbeforeanasalconsonant-bedvs.BenProgressiveassimilation-iftwosoundsaretogetherinsequenceXY,thensomecharacteristicofXspreadstoY(forward).Voicelessliquidsandglides-bridevs.prideArticulatoryProcesses-AssimilationVoicingassimilation-asoundtakesonthesamevoicingasanearbysoundvoicing-voicelesssoundbecomesvoiceddevoicing-voicedsoundbecomesvoicelessArticulatoryProcesses-AssimilationNasalization-makingvowelnasalizedAssimilationofmannerofarticulation-asoundtakesonthesamemannerofarticulationasanearbysoundFlapping-betweentwovowels,analveolarstopbecomesaflap(wherefirstsyllableisstressedandsecondisnot)(Flapsareconsideredcontinuantsomorevowellike)AssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊changNa跳啊tiaowa……ArticulatoryProcesses-DissimilationTwosoundsbecomelessalikeRareprocessArticulatoryProcesses-EpenthesisProcessthatinsertsasegmentincertainphoneticcontextsDeletionruleDeletionrule----ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.SuprasegmentalfeaturesSuprasegmentalfeatures----thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonationSyllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.[mAn].Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.But[l],[n]and[m]mightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism”.StressWordstressSentencestressWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:im5port;in5crease;re5bel;re5cord…noun:5import;5increase;5rebel;5record…WordstressSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:5blackbird;5greenhouse;5hotdog…nounphrase:black5bird;green5house;hot5dog…WordstressThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbag…doer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5plane…SentencestressSentencestress----therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations----Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.Grammaticalfunctionsofintonationsb)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“Johndidn’tcomebecauseofMarry”Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn’tcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”Grammaticalfunctionsofintonationsc)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.RelevantstructuresThehumanheadseeninasagittalview;asifithadbeencutdownthecenter