中国文化通览

ChineseCulinaryArts中国饮食文化Chineseculinaryartsarerathercomplicated,andindifferentplaces,therearedifferentwaysforpreparingdishes.Manydifferentcuisinesuniquetocertainareasareformed,forinstance,Shandongcuisine（菜肴）,Beijngcuisine,Shanghaicuisine,Sichuancuisine,Jiangsucuisine,Zhejiangcuisine,Anhuicuisine,Hunancuisine,Hubeicuisine,Fujiancuisine,Shanxicuisine,Henancuisine,north-easternChinacuisine,royalstylecuisine,Muslimstylecuisineandvegetariancuisine.Eachcuisinehasitsownspecialty.（例子不背）Forexample,theFujiancuisinehasadishcalled“happinessandlongevity”.Itspreparationislikethis:firstputsomeofthemostnutritiousingredients(seacucumber,driedscallop,shark’sfin,ham,tendonsofbeef,dove’seggs,chicken,duck,etc)intoajar,thenaddsomebonebroth,Shaoxingricewineandspices,next,coverthemouthofthejarwithalotusleaf,andlast,simmeritonthestove.It’snothardtoimaginehowdeliciousandnutritiousthedishwouldbe.Thisdishhasanotherwell-knownname—“Buddhajumpingoverthewall”.Itmaysoundstrange,butthere’saninterestingstorybehindit.ItissaidthatduringtheQingDynasty,arestaurantinFuzhou(thecapitalcityofFujianProvince)wasveryfamousforitsdishes.Oneday,therestaurantmadethedish“happinessandlongevity”,thearomaofthedishwassoappetizingandspreadsofarthatamonkinanearbytemplejustcouldn’tresistthetemptation.Intheend,heputasidetheBuddhistdiscipline,jumpedoverthewallintotherestaurant,andatetohisheart’scontent.Whathappenedtothemonkafterwards,wedonotknow,butthereputationofthedish“Buddhajumpingoverthewall”spreadafar.Generallyspeaking,therearethreeessentialfactors（要素）bywhichChinesecookingisjudged,namely:“color,aromaandtaste”.“Color”referstothelayout（布局）anddesignofthedishes.“Aroma”impliesnotonlythesmellofthedish,butalsothefreshnessofthematerialsandtheblendingofseasonings（作料）.“Taste”involvesproperseasoningandfineslicingtechniques（切片技术）.Thesethreeessentialfactorsareachievedbycarefulcoordinationofaseriesofdelicateactivities（微妙的活动）:selectingingredients（材料）,mixingflavors,timingandcooking,adjustmentoftheheat,andlayingoutthefoodontheplate.Whatisworthmentioningisthatthere’salotofculturalbackgroundknowledgeinvolvedinthenamingofChinesedishes.Often,it’shard,evenfortheChinesepeoplethemselves,totellwhatisactuallyinacertaindishuntilitisservedonthetable.Ofcourse,onecanalwaysturntothewaiterorwaitressforexplanation.Inmostcases,waitersandwaitressesarereadytosatisfyone’scuriosity.Apartfromhavingregardfortheabove-mentionedthreeessentialfactors—“color,aromaandtaste”,Chinesecuisineattachesgreatimportancetonutrition.Asamatteroffact,ChinesecuisinehaslongbeencloselyrelatedtotraditionalChinesemedicine.Ginseng,walnut,ChineseangelicaandthefruitofChinesewolfberryareoftenusedasingredientsincertainChinesedishes.中国饮食文化Chineseculinaryartsarerathercomplicated,andindifferentplaces,therearedifferentwaysforpreparingdishes.Manydifferentcuisinesuniquetocertainareasareformed,forinstance,Shandongcuisine（菜肴）,Beijngcuisine,Shanghaicuisine,Sichuancuisine,Generallyspeaking,therearethreeessentialfactors（要素）bywhichChinesecookingisjudged,namely:“color,aromaandtaste”.Thesethreeessentialfactorsareachievedbycarefulcoordinationofaseriesofdelicateactivities（微妙的活动）:selectingingredients（材料）,mixingflavors,timingandcooking,adjustmentoftheheat,andlayingoutthefoodontheplate.Whatisworthmentioningisthatthere’salotofculturalbackgroundknowledgeinvolvedinthenamingofChinesedishes.Apartfromhavingregardfortheabove-mentionedthreeessentialfactors—“color,aromaandtaste”,ChinesecuisineattachesgreatimportancetonutritionChineseTeaCultureChinesepeopleliketodrinktea,andoftenentertainfriendsandguestswithit.Theyarethefirsttodiscoverthetealeafandhavebeendrinkingteainmanyvarietieseversince.Chineseteamaybeclassifiedintofourtypesaccordingtothedifferentmethodsbywhichitisprocessed.Greenteakeepstheoriginalcolorofthetealeaveswithoutfermentationduringprocessing.ThiscategoryconsistsmainlyofLongjing,MaofengandBiluochun.Blackteaisfermentedbeforebaking;itisalatervarietydevelopedonthebasisofthegreentea.Oolongtearepresentsavarietyhalfwaybetweenthegreenandtheblacktea,madeafterpartialfermentation.Scentedteaismadebymixingfragmentedflowersinthetealeavesinthecourseofprocessing.Theflowerscommonlyusedforthispurposearejasmineteaandmagnoliaamongothers.Jasmineteaisawell-knownfavoritewiththenorthernersofChinaandwithagrowingnumberofforeigners.Differenttea-drinkingcustomsinvariouspartsofChinamakeuptherichChineseteaculture.Amongthecustoms,ahostwillonlyfillateacuptoseven-tenthsofitscapacity.Itissaidthattheotherthree-tenthswillbefilledwithfriendshipandaffection.Moreover,theteacupshouldbeemptiedinthreegulps.TeaplaysanimportantroleinChinesesociallife.TeaisalwaysofferedtoaguestimmediatelyuponenteringaChinesehome.Servingacupofteaismorethanamatterofmerepoliteness.Itisasymboloftogetherness,asharingofsomethingenjoyable,andawayofshowingrespecttovisitors.InsomeareasofChina,itmightbeconsideredrudenottotakeatleastasip.Althoughtherehasbeenanincreasingamountofliteratureaboutteainrecentyears,suchliteratureiscertainlynotnew.DuringtheSongdynasty,LuYu,whoisknownasthe“TeaSage”,wrotetheTeaScripture.Thisscripturedescribesindetailtheprocessesofplantingteabushes,pickingtealeavesandpreparingleavesforbrewing.FamouspoetssuchasLiBai,DuFu,andBaiJuyicreatedlargenumbersofpoemsabouttea.FamouspaintersTangBohuandWenZhengmingevendrewmanypicturesabouttea.TheChinesepaygreatattentiontotheirteaandthewaytheydrinkit.Peoplehavehighrequirementsforthequalityofthepreparedtealeaf,thewatertheyusetobrewteaandthewarestheyusetoprepareandservetea.Normally,thefinestteaisgrownataltitudesof3,000to7,000feet(900to2,100meters).Peopleselecttheirwatercarefully.TheChineseemphasizewaterqualityandwatertaste.Finewatermustbepure,sweet,cool,clean,andflowing.Chinesepreferpotterywarestowaresmadeofmetalorothermaterials.ThebestchoiceisthepurpleclaywaresinYixingandJingdezhen.Thepurpleclaygivesthewaretheirinternationally-knownpurplecolor.中国茶文化Drinkingteacanquenchone’sthirst,dispelfatigue,helpdigestionandpreventsomediseases.Theconstantdrinkingofteaisquitebeneficialtopeople’shealth.Chineseteamaybeclassifiedintofourtypesaccordingtothedifferentmethodsbywhichitisprocessed.GreenteaBlackteaOolongteaScentedtea.Differenttea-drinkingcustomsinvariouspartsofChinamakeuptherichChineseteaculture.TeaplaysanimportantroleinChinesesociallife.Drinkingteacanquenchone’sthirst,dispelfatigue,helpdigestionandpreventsomediseases.Theconstantdrinkingofteaisquitebeneficialtopeople’shealth.TheWineCulture酒文化WinecultureisanimportantpartoftheChinesefoodanddrinkculture.AccordingtoTheBookofRites,thewaterancientChineseofferedtogodwascalledxuanjiuormingshuibylatergenerations.Astotheinventorofwine,thereareseveralversions,butthemostpopularoneisthatapersoncalledDuKangmadeit.DukangorShaoKangwasregardedastheinventorofwine.　DrinkingEtiquette酒令Thedrinkers’wagergamenotonlybroughtfuntothedrinkersatthebanquet,butalsopromotedthepopularizationofChinesewineculture.NowadayswinecultureisstillanimportantpartofChinesepeople’sdailylife.酒令作为酒宴中的一种游戏，不仅增加了人们饮酒时的情趣，而且也进一步促进了中国酒文化的兴盛。时至今日，酒文化仍然是人们日常生活当中的一个重要 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 。TraditionalFestivalsEverynationintheworldhasitsowntraditionalfestivals,sodoesChina.Chinaisamultiethniccountrywithmanyfestivalssharedbyallethnicities.Andmostofthetraditionalfestivalsarerelatedtohistoricaldevelopment,religiouspracticeandmoralprinciplesoftheChineseculture.Ofthosefestivals,somearekepttocommemoratecertainhistoricaleventssoastoinspirethepeopletosucceedandcarryoutsomeloftyspiritorfinetraditions;otherstosingthepraisefrotheoutstandingpersonsandexpresspeople’sgriefforthemandcherishtheirmemory.Traditionalfestivalsarecreatedbythepeoplethemselves,radiatingwiththeirwisdomandideals.China’smajortraditionalfestivalsincludetheSpringFestival,theLanternFestival,theQingmingFestival,theDragonBoatFestival,theMid-AutumnFestivalandtheDoubleNinthFestival.EthnicgroupshavealsoretainedtheirowntraditionalfestivalsincludingtheWaterSprinklingFestivaloftheDaipeople,theNadamFairoftheMongolianpeople,andtheTorchFestivaloftheYipeople,etc.Chinesetraditionsandfestivalsarecloselyrelatedtocomplex,mysticalconceptsoftime,similartothosefoundinWesternastrology.ThetraditionallunarcalendaristhesamecalendarasusedinWesterncountries.Thisistheofficialcalendarandallholidaysandfestivalsthatbeganinmoderntimesarecelebratedondaysofthis(Gregorian)calendar.ThelunarcalendaristheonethattheChinesehaveusedthroughoutmostoftheirhistory.ItisalsoknownastheFarmer’sCalendar.MonthsinthetraditionalChineseyearareknownasmoonsandtheyhaveeither29or30days.Thecalendarisarrangedsothatthefirstdayofeachmonthcoincideswithanewmoonandthe15thdaycorrespondstoafullmoon.However,the12lunarmonthsdonotequatetoareal(solar)year,soandextra,intercalarymonthisaddedeverythirdyear.This13thmonthisinsertedanywherebetweenthe2ndand11thmonth.Combingthetwocalendarspresentsafewproblems,sotheChineseusealmanacstodeterminetheGregoriandatesofluckyorunluckydays.Chinesepeopleliketorefertosuchalmanacswhensettingdatesformarriages,openingbusinessesorhavingchildren.Traditionally,thecalendarwascriticaltothetimingofevents,bothonapersonalandsociallevel.AllthegreatChinesefestivalsoccuratspecialtimesinthetraditionalcalendar.TheSpringFestival(春节)ThisistheChineseequivalentofChristmasandNewYearrolledintoone.ItcelebratesthebeginningoftheNewYearaccordingtothelunarcalendar阴历.ToavoidconfusionwiththeJanuary1stNewYear,itiscalledtheSpringFestival.ItfallsbetweenJanuary21standFebruary20thandprovidesthebiggestcelebrationoftheChineseyear.Itisatimewhenfamiliesgettogetherandpeopleoftentravelgreatdistancestodoso.ThelastdaysoftheoldyeararespentcleaningthehousethoroughlyandpreparingthelunarNewYearfeast.Chinesepeopleliketoeatfishatthistimebecausethewordforfishispronouncedthesamewayasthewordforabundance,soarequestforfishinvokesaplentifulnewyear.Stickycakesareeaten,too.Peoplegiveofferingsoffoodtotheirancestorsorlocalgodswithintheirownhomes.FamiliesliketohanglunarNewYearpicturesinthehomes.Thesemightfeaturefish,harvestsorchildren,allhealthyandplentiful.Redissynonymouswithwealth,soparentsgiveluckymoneytotheirchildreninlittleredenvelopesandspringcoupletsbearingauspiciousmessagesarehungoneithersideoftheentrancetothehousetobringgoodfortuneintothehome.Therearemanypubliccelebrations,too.LionDancesareperformed.Theseinvolvemanypeoplecarryingacostumeanimalthroughthestreets,themaintroupememberatthehead.Traditionallymembersofrivalkungfuschoolscompetedwitheachothertodisplaytheirgroup’sprestigeandphysicalskills,butnowadayspeopleparticipatetothesoundofpoundingdrumsanddeafeningfirecrackerstoscareawayevilspirits.TheLanternFestival元宵节TheLanternFestivalisheldonthefirstfullmoonoftheyear,15daysintothefirstmonth.Duringthefestival,lanternsofmanyshapesandcolours,madefromsilkorpaper,arehungoutsidethehomes.Thisfestivalisassociatedwithglutinousricedumplingsstuffedwithvarioussweetfillings.TheseareknowntoBeijingersasyuanxiao,whichisanothernameforthefestival.TheQingmingFestival清明节TombSweepingDayandtheClearBrightFestivalareothercommonEnglishtranslationsoftheQingmingFestival.Qingminghasatraditionstretchingbackmorethan2,500years.ItsoriginiscreditedtotheTangEmperorXuanzong,in732.WealthycitizensinChinawerereportedlyholdingtoomanyextravagantandostentatiouslyexpensiveceremoniesinhonoroftheirancestors.EmperorXuanzong,seekingtocurbthispractice,declaredthatrespectscouldbeformallypaidatancestors’gravesonlyonQingming.TheobservanceofQingmingfoodfoundafirmplaceinChinesecultureandcontinueduninterruptedlyforovertwomillennia.TheQingmingFestivalisanopportunityforcelebrantstorememberandhonortheirancestorsatgravesites.Youngandoldpraybeforetheancestors,sweepthetombsandofferfood,tea,wine,chopsticks,(joss)paperaccessories,and/orlibationtotheancestors.TheriteshavealongtraditioninAsia,especiallyamongfarmers.SomepeoplecarrywillowbrancheswiththemonQingming,orputwillowbrancheshelpwardofftheevilspiritthatwandersonQingming.AlsoonQingmingpeoplegoonfamilyoutings,startthespringplowing,sing,dance,andQingmingisatimewhenyoungpeoplestartcourting.Anotherpopularthingtodoisflyingkites(inshapesofanimalsorcharactersfromChineseopera).Otherscarryflowersinsteadofburningpaper,incenseorfirecrackersasiscommon.Nowadays,gravecleaningisrarelyperformedbyurbanChinesesincecremationisthelawandcommonpractice.However,mostmodernChinesehonortheirdeadonthisdaythroughsomeformofcommemoration.Unusually,thisfestivalissetbythesolarcalendaranditfallsinearlyApril.TheDragonBoatFestival端午节龙舟节ThisisprobablythemostenergeticChinesefestival.Ittakesplaceonthe5thdayofthe5thlunarmonthandinvolvesfranticboatracesupanddownriversinruralChina.Theboatsaredressedupasdragonsandraced,thepurposebeingtotamethedragonsbelievedtobealiveintheriversandresponsibleforcausingfloods.ThedatecommemoratesthesuicideofMinisterQuYuanwho,afterbeingexpelledbytheking,drownedhimself.Fishermenracedtosavehimbutfailed.Toprotecthissoul,theybeatdrumsandslappedthewaterwiththeiroars.Thefoodofthisfestivaliszongzi,pyramid-shapeddumplingwithglutinousrice.这可能是最精力充沛的中国节日。它发生在每年农历5月5日,是疯狂的上下船比赛在中国农村河流。船是装扮成龙日期纪念部长屈原的自杀,后被国王驱逐,淹死自己。渔民跑去救他,但失败了。保护他的灵魂,他们击败了鼓和桨扇了水。这个节日的食物是粽子,糯米金字塔形状的饺子。TheMid-AutumnFestival中秋节Thisfestivalcoincideswiththeautumnequinox,whenthemoonisatitsfullestandbrightestonthe15thofthe8thmonth.ItisassociatedwiththelegendofChang’eandherrabbitlivingonthemoon.Traditionally,itwascommonforpeopletomeetandphilosophizewhilegazingatthenightsky.Thefoodofthisfestivalisthedeliciousmooncake.这个节日恰逢秋分,当月亮是最大的和最聪明的在8月15日。它是与嫦娥的传说和她的兔子在月球上生活。传统上,这是共同为人们满足和理性地思考而凝视夜空。这个节日的食物是美味的月饼TheDoubleNinthFestival重阳节The9thdayofthe9thlunarmonthisthetraditionalChongyangFestival,orDoubleNinthFestival.ItusuallyfallsinOctoberintheGregoriancalendar.InanancientandmysteriousbookI-Ching,orTheBookofChanges,thenumberof“6”wasthoughttobeofyincharacter,meaningfeminineornegative,whilethenumber“9”wasthoughttobeyang,meaningmasculineorpositive.Sothenumber9inbothmonthanddaycreatestheDoubleNinthFestival,orChongyangFestival.Thecustomofascendingaheighttoavoidepidemicswaspasseddownfromlongtimeago.Therefore,theDoubleNinthFestivalisalsocalled“HeightAscendingFestival”.Theheightthatpeoplewillreachisusuallyamountainoratower.Ancientliteraryfigureshaveleftmanypoemsdepictingtheactivity.Evennow,duringthisfestivalperiodpeopleswarmtothemountains—thewell-knownandlittle-known.ThefoodofthisfestivalisDoubleNinthGao(orcake).InChinese,Gao(cake)hasthesamepronunciationwithheight.Peopledosojusttohopeforprogressineverythingtheyareengagedin.therearenofixedwaysfortheDoubleNinthCake,butsupercakeswillhaveasmanyasninelayers,lookinglikeatower.TheDoubleNinthFestivalisalsoatimewhenchrysanthemumblooms.Chinaboastsdiversifiedspeciesofchrysanthemumandpeoplehavelovedthemsinceancienttimes.Enjoyingtheflourishingchrysanthemumalsobecomesakeyactivityonthisfestival.Also,peoplewilldrinkchrysanthemumwine.Womenusedtosticksuchaflowerintotheirhairorhangitsbranchesonwindowsordoorstoavoidevilspirits.The9thdayofthe9thlunarmonthisthetraditionalChongyangFestival,orDoubleNinthFestival.Inthehandynasty,PeoplebegantoCelebratethedoubleninthfestival.Intheday,peopleoftentourscene,climboverlooktimes,ornamentalchrysanthemum,dogwood,eatdoubleninthgao(orcake),drinkchrysanthemumwineandotheractivities.Itisalsotherighttimeforpeopletoremembertheirancestors.EUntilthetangdynasty,chongyangwasformallyasafolkfestival,TraditionalChineseMedicineTraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)isbasedonthephilosophicalconceptthatthehumanbodyisasmalluniversewithasetofcompleteandsophisticatedclosely-relatedsubsystems.Thosesystemsusuallyworkharmoniouslytomaintainthenormalfunctionofthehumanbody.ThereareAlsosystems (muchliketheimmunesysteminmodernconcept)inhumanbodytohealillnessautomatically.Incaseofanyimbalancebetweenthosesubsystemsinthehumanbody,thehealingsystemmaylosepowerandthenillnessoccurs.Ontheotherhand,ifbalanceisrestored,thepersonheals.TCMtheorypaysmoreattentiontoassistingthebalanceofthehumanbodyandlettingitshealingsystemdoitsjob,whileWesternmedicineisbetteratfightingthecauseofillnessdirectly.ThisiswhymanypeopleinChinaseektreatmentfromWesternmedicineforacuteillnessandprefertouseTCMforlong-termproblems.ThebasictheoryofChinesemedicineattemptstoexplainthenatureoflifecycleanddiseasechanges.Itincludesfivetheories:yinandyang,thefiveelements,howtodirectone’sstrength,zangfu(internalbodyorgans),andchannels.Italsoresearchesdialectics,andexplainswhydiseasesoccur,howtodiagnoseandpreventdiseases,andhowtokeepthebodyhealthy.Theconceptofyinandyangcomesfromanancientphilosophicalconcept.Afterobservingthephenomenon,ancientpeoplegroupedallconflictingideasintoyinandyang.Theyusedthisconcepttoexplainhowthingschanged.Chinesemedicineusedyinandyangtoillustratethecomplicatedrelationshipbetweenvariousthings,suchasthedifferentpartsofthehumanbodyandlivingthingsversusnatureorsociety.Itwasbelievedthattherelativebalanceofyinandyangservedasthebasistomaintainthenormalactivitiesofthehumanbody.Ifsuchabalancewasdisturbed,diseasesoccurred,thusaffectingpeople’shealth.Becausethelawofyin-yangcanbeappliedtoanythinginexistence,itisaverypowerfultoolofanalysisandunderstanding.Therearefivepointstothelawofyin-yang:Opposition:Everythinghastwooppositeaspects.Yinandyangstrugglewitheachotherandtrytocontroleachother.Interdependence:Yinandyangdefineeachotherandthereforeonecannotexistwithouttheother.Mutualconsumptionandsupport:Yinandyangeachgiveoffthemselvestonourishtheother.Inter-transformation:yincanbecomeyangandyangcanbecomeyin.Infinitesub-divisibility:Thereisalwaysabitofoneintheother.Thefiveelements—wood,water,fire,metal,andearth—emergedfromtheobservationofthevariousgroupsofdynamicprocesses,functions,andcharacteristicsinthenaturalworld.Eachoftheelementsisseenashavingaseriesofcorrespondencesrelatingbothtothenaturalworldandtothehumanbody.TCMusesasystemofinter-relationshipsbetweenthefiveelementstounderstandhowthevariousprocessesofthebodysupportandcontroleachother.Becauseoftheseinter-relationships,whenoneoftheorgansanditsassociatedelementisoutofbalance,theotherelementsarealsoaffected.Thisimbalancewillmanifestintheindividualwithmanydifferentsignsandsymptoms.Itmayshowinthefacialcolor,thesoundofthevoice,orachangeintheemotionalstateaswellasdisharmonyinthefunctioningoftheconnectedorgans.Therearetwomaincyclesinvolvedinthefiveelements:theshengandke.Theshengcycleismoreyang,expansive,orientedwithanemphasisongrowthandsogenerating.Thekecycleismoreyin,contractive,orientedwithanemphasisoncontrolandsorestraining.TheSheng/GeneratingCycle:TheclockwisesequenceonthecirclerepresentstheShengCycle.Eachelementisthemotherofthenext:metalproduceswater;waternourisheswood;woodfuelsfire;firemakesearth;earthyieldsmetal.TheKe/RegulatingCycle:Theclockwisesequenceproducedbythepentagonrepresentstheregulatingordestructivecycle.Firecanmeltmetal;metalcancutwood;woodcancontainearth;earthcanabsorbwater;watercanextinguishfire.Theconceptsofyin-yangandthefiveelementsprovidetheintellectualframeworkofmuchofChinesescientificthinkinginthefieldofmedicine.Theorgansofthebodyareseentobeinterrelatedinthesamesortsofwaysasothernaturalphenomena,andbestunderstoodbylookingforcorrelationsandcorrespondences.Totreatdiseases,doctorsusethemethodsofobservation,auscultationandolfaction,interrogation,andpulsefeelingandpalpation.Thesemethods,knownasthefourmajormethods,eachhavetheirdistinctivefunctionanddoctorscanmakeacorrectanalysisofdiseasesbyapplyingallofthem.望Observation:Itisbelievedthatpeople’souterappearanceiscloselylinkedwiththeirinternalorgans.Ifthereissomethingwrongwiththeinternalorgans,suchchangeswillbereflectedinpeople’sexpressionsandappearances.Therefore,doctorscananalyzethechangesofinternalorgansbyobservingtheouterappearance.闻AuscultationandOlfaction；Bythemethodsofauscultationandolfaction,doctorstrytodiagnosediseasesbylisteningtothesoundofthepatientsandsmellingtheodorofexcretareleasedbythehumanbody.Bylisteningtothesoundofthepatients,doctorscandetectnotonlythechangesoftheorgansrelatedwithsound,butalsothechangesoftheotherinternalorgans.Theso