翻译目的论

nullIntroduction to Skopos Theory Introduction to Skopos Theory 翻译目的论nullSkopos is a Greek word for ‘purpose’. According to Skopostheorie (the theory that applies the notion of Skopos to translation) , the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action.nullTranslation Skopos Theory is the important theory of the functionalist approaches. Skopos Theory holds that translation is an intentional cross-cultural communication, which should take the expected functions to be achieved in the target culture as the primary reference. A translator should choose translation strategies purposefully, the translation strategies should be determined by the intended function of the target text. Therefore, it has broken the limitation of “equivalence translation” and made more translation possible. nullThe founder of the functionalist approaches has been Katharina Reiss, she has published an article titled “Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism” in 1971, which has suggested that the function of the version is a standard of translating criticism, and pointed out the basis of translating criticism is the relation between functions of the source and target text. She thinks that language has three kinds of functions: representational, expressive and appellative(呼吁型) . A piece of writing seldom only has one kind of functions, but always has one function to be a major factor. She divides the version into three kinds correspondingly: Attach importance to content or information, attach importance to the language form and attach importance to the effect to reader. nullReiss and Vermeer wrote a book entitled Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation in 1984. They suggested that translation should be controlled by the main function. Based on action theory, taking the text purpose as the first rule in the process of the translation, Vermeer has created the Translation Skopos Theory. According to the action theory, Skopos Theory takes translation as a kind of human action, which has special purposes. When we’re translating, we should pay attention to the purpose of the translation and the readers. nullGuided by the human action theory, Translation Skopos Theory places translation in the scope of the study. Skopos Theory, which emphasizes the function of target texts, maintains that translation is a purposeful intercultural activity and that all the translation should obey the following three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule.null1) the Skopos Rule. This rule is the most important and it’s the core principle of Skopos Theory. According to this rule, the whole translation, which includes the choice of the translation methods and strategies, is decided by the purpose that translation action need attain. The fulfillment of the communicative purpose in the target culture place an important role in the translation process. About this view, Vermeer and Reiss state in their book General Foundations of Translation Theory, “The overall frame of reference for the translator should be the original and its function, as equivalence-based translation theory would have it, but the function or set of functions the target text is to achieve in the target culture” (Reiss & Vermeer, 1984:123).null2) the Coherence Rule. The translation should be in accordance with the standard of inner-language coherence. The inner-language coherence means that the translation should be understood by the reader and it should be meaningful in the target culture and the communicative context the translation used.null3）the Fidelity Rule. The fidelity rule refers that the source text and the target text should be in accordance with each other on the inter-language coherence, Inter-language coherence is similar to the faithfulness to the text. How is it faithful to the text and what form is decided by the purpose of the target text and the understanding of the translator to the source text.nullChistiane Nord put forward a function plus loyalty model, which cares about loyalty of the translator to the target text receivers and the original authors. That is to say the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are not the popular suitable rules, every translation should obey the skopos rule and the fidelity rule, which are the important rules in the functionalist translation theory and the popular rules during the process of the translation. While the coherence rule and the fidelity rule belongs to the special rules, in fact, the fidelity rule is based on the coherence rule, when the translation can’t obey the fidelity rule, the adequacy of the translation becomes the criterion of the translation.nullAccording to Skopos Theory, translation is to produce a suitable function target version based on the source version. The relations of two different versions should be explained by Skopos Theory. A factual result of Skopos Theory is to emphasize the place of the source version. The role of the source version should be decided by the translator in the translation action. nullThe purpose accurately explained is the decisive factor, the translator should translate it based on the precise purpose. The purpose of translation should be decided by the specific situation, adopting the domestication to translate it into target-language culture, or adopting the foreignization to translate it into the version can keep the source-language culture scene and be familiar with the source culture by the readers. The translator should know the signification and the purpose of the translation, while a certain purpose is only one of many purposes. nullEvery text has not only one correct or ideal translation. So the task of translation should be clear or purposefully explained, the purpose of the target text should not be completely the same. But the target text should have the definite purpose, otherwise translation can’t be completed. nullEver since 1970s, more and more scholars have moved their translation studies beyond linguistics. The translation theorists begin to challenge and expand the notion of equivalence and look for another way to develop translation studies. Vermeer states, “Linguistics alone won’t help us. First, because translating is not merely and not even primarily linguistic process. Secondly, because linguistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problem. So let’s look somewhere” (qtd. in Nord, 2001: 10). As a break with linguistic translation theory, Skopos Theory is one part of the school of function-oriented approach to the theory and practice of translation grew in Germany in the1970s. nullThe functionalist approaches focus on “functions of the texts and translations”. The three representatives of the translation theory are: Katharina Reiss’s functional category of translation criticism, Hans J. Vermeer’s Skopos theory and Justa Holz-Manttari’s theory of translational action. Skopos Theory is the most important theory of this school. Reiss and Vermeer play key roles in the building of the theory and Christiane Nord’s role is crucial for a further development of the Skopos Theory. Three translation theorists in the development of skopos theory: Three translation theorists in the development of skopos theory: Three translation theorists contributed most--- Katharina Reiss, Han J. Vermeer and Christiane Nord, centering on separate research aspects---- text typology, skopos interpretation , and functionality plus loyalty.null(1) Katharina Reiss: text typology The thought of Functionalism has appeared in Reiss’s work as early as in 1971, which introduces “functional category” into translation criticism. Although it is still based on equivalence, the new theoretical format introduces a unique perspective for translation analysis, emphasizing the functional relationship between ST and TT. nullReiss argues that the skopos of translation can be inferred from the function of source text, thus, the analysis of text types is of great importance. A text may display multiple functions, however, only one of which dominates. According to the variant textual functions, texts are grouped respectively into informative texts (emphasizing content and information), expressive texts (emphasizing the form of sizing content information) and operative texts (emphasizing appeal to the reader). null(2) Hans J. Vermeer’s Interpretation Vermeer is the founder of skopos theory, whose idea is based on the theory of action. He states that translation is a form of action, so this translational action has an aim or a purpose since any action has one. To translate means to fulfill the skopos of translation action, which is mainly determined by the target culture and target addressees. nullEvery translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means ‘to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances’ (Vermeer,1987a; Nord, 2001:12)nullThe skopos permeates in the whole activity of translation, which Vermeer interprets has three levels of meaning: First, translation process, i.e. the aim of the translating; Second, the result of translation, that is, the function of the “translation” (target text); Third, translation strategies, also the intentions of means. nullTherefore, each aspect of the translation is dominated by its skopos, with all efforts in the process serving for it. In a word, skopos determines the emphasis of translation. The point is that the translator should know what kind of action is to take, and what are the result and effect of the action. (3) Christiane Nord’s Development(3) Christiane Nord’s DevelopmentNord introduces the concept of “functionality plus loyalty” into the functional model in order to solve the problem of radical functionalism.. “Loyalty” differs from “faithfulness” in the traditional translation theory. “Loyalty” is an ethical and “interpersonal category referring to a social relationship between people” (Nord, 2001) , including translator, source-text author, target recipient and initiator, etc. Therefore, “loyalty” stands for human relationships, while “faithfulness” represents textual ones. nullFor the functionalist frame of reference, Nord’s approach of “function plus loyalty” has enriched the theoretical construction. One the one hand, it limits the range of possible functions of translated texts; on the other hand, it enhances communication and discussion between the translator and the client. The Theoretical Foundation: Theory of Action The Theoretical Foundation: Theory of Action In the functionalist approaches to translation studies, action theory is very important, it is applied to explain translation and used as the theoretical foundation by the theorists. In the opinion of Von Wright, action is the process of acting, which means an intentional “change or translation from one state of affairs to another” .When two or more people are involved in an action, it becomes an interaction. When we consider the multiple factors involved in a translation procedure, translation is also an interaction. nullTranslation theorists of the functionalist approaches view translation as an intentional, interpersonal, partly verbal intercultural interaction based on a source text (ibid: 19). Because of the emphasis on the interplay of each relation, such definition broadens the horizon of translation studies and explain the complexity of translation. 1.1 Translating as an Intentional Interaction 1.1 Translating as an Intentional Interaction The functionalist theorists hold that translating is an intentional interaction, which means that translation must be directed toward a purpose, that is to say, to promote communication or inform the readers. The intentionality doesn’t mean an action really being intentional but means the action must be seen or interpreted as intentional by the participants. In the translation, the intentionality may be associated with the translator or the initiator. It may not be similar to intention of the original author. So in the process of translation, we should choose the translation strategy according to the purpose that the translation is intended for.1.2 Translating as an Interpersonal Interaction1.2 Translating as an Interpersonal Interaction When we say that translating is an interpersonal interaction, the theorists stress the roles of all the possible participants in the process of translation. According to the functionalism, all the participants have some functions or roles in the interaction. Hola-Manttari gives a full detail of these roles, which are the initiator, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver (Munday, 2001: 77). To some extent all these roles may account for the translation belief set for the translation and have an effect on the purpose and the strategies of the translation. Of them, the role of the translator is crucial in the translation process, as the translator has to carry out the task and ensure the result of translation. The role of intended target text receiver is also decisive in the specification of translation skopos.1.3 Translating as a Communicative Action 1.3 Translating as a Communicative Action The people who view translating as a communicative action suggest that the signs and the means to carry out communication are conventional and culture-specific. The producer and receiver of the sign may not interpret the meaning in the same way. So it needs kind of negotiation or agreement about the meaning of sign between these two in order to achieve the intended goal. In the process of translation, it means the signs translated by the translators must be known or interpretable by the target readers.1.4 Translating as a Text-processing Action 1.4 Translating as a Text-processing Action When we say translating is a text-processing action, it means defining translational action should base on a kind of text. The functionalist theorists do not treat it as a statistic and close system, but have come to enlarge the concept of text into verbal or nonverbal elements, situational clues or hidden or presupposed information. At the same time, they hold source text is only an offer of information, one of the sources of information used by the translator. In this way, the source text is not the only criteria for the translation.1.2 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory 1.2 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory Hans J. Vermeer develops his general theory of translation called Skopos Theory, which is based on the theory of action. To break with traditional linguistic translation theory, Vermeer thinks that translation is an intercultural action. It is not “the transcoding of words or sentences from one language into another, but a complex action in which someone provides information about a text under new functional, cultural and linguistic conditions and in a new situation” (qtd. in Snell-Hornby, 2001: 46). Vermeer thinks that translation is a form of translational action based on a source text. Any action has an aim or purpose. So Skopos Theory is its Greek origin. nullIn Skopos Theory, the primary principle that determines any translation process is “the purpose (Skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord, 2001: 27). A translational action has all kinds of translation skopos, which are related to each other in a hierarchical order and determine the translation methods. Vermeer points out the three possible kinds of purposes: the general purpose aimed at the translator in the translation process, the communicative purpose aimed at particular translation strategies or procedure. Generally speaking, Skopos refers to the purpose of the target text. 1.2.1 Three Rules and Their Relationship1.2.1 Three Rules and Their Relationship Skopos rule is the most important rule in Skopos Theory. Any translational action is determined by its Skopos and the ends justify the means. Vermeer explains the rule in the following: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function . nullIt means that a translator must translate, consciously and consistently and it should be in accordance with a certain principle respecting to the target text. The principle is decided in specific situation and determined by translation commission. Skopos Theory also includes the coherence rule and fidelity rule. nullThe coherence rule states that the translation should be coherence to the target text receiver’s situation so as to be acceptable. According to the coherence rule, the translator is expected to produce a text in conformity to the expectation of the target readers. The text should be interpretable to the readers given to their background situation and knowledge. The fidelity rule concerns intertextual coherence between the target text and the source text. How the translator interprets the source text and the translation skopos decide its form. To be more specific, it means the coherence between the ST information received by the translator. The interpretation the translator makes of the information and the the information that is encoded for the TT receivers (Munday, 2001: 80).nullIn Skopos Theory, intertextual coherence doesn’t always mean a maximal imitation of the source text. Of the three rules, skopos rule is the predominating rule. Intertextual coherence (fidelity) is considered less important than intratextual coherence and both of them are subordinate to skopos rule. 1.2.2 Standard of Evaluation 1.2.2 Standard of Evaluation In the process of translation, the translator’s assumptions of the target text readers’ needs, expectations and previous knowledge usually guide himself. It is obvious that the assumptions may be different to the intention of the original author. So it is understandable that the translator cannot offer the same amount or kind of information as the original author. For that, Skopos Theory has come to challenge the concept of equivalence. According to Skopos Theory, the intended purposes of the target text determine the translation strategies and the criterion for translation evaluation is “adequacy” instead of “equivalence”. Adequacy refers to the qualities of a target text with regard to the translation purpose. nullTranslation should be adequate to the translation skopos. Compared with equivalence, adequacy is related to the process of translation and referred to be appropriate for the communication purpose in the translation. Equivalence is static as it is usually defined the relationship between the equal communicative value, between texts, words, sentences, syntactic of the original and the translation and etc. In Skopos Theory, equivalence is subject to adequacy and determined by skopos. Within the frame of Skopos Theory, purpose is essential in the evaluation of function. Translation is defined to be adequate or inadequate with regard to the purpose or the communicative function it is supposed to achieve. 1.2.3 Chistiane Nord: A Function Plus Loyalty Model 1.2.3 Chistiane Nord: A Function Plus Loyalty Model In Skopos Theory source text is regarded as only an offer of information intended for the target text receivers, from which the translator make selection in accordance with their needs and expectations. The fidelity rule is put into a secondary place. Skopos Theory is criticized to dethrone the original. For that, Chistiane Nord proposes a Function plus Loyalty model in order to better Skopos Theory. nullIn Nord’s opinion, function means “the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” and loyalty is “the responsibility translators have toward their partners in trans