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PAGE/NUMPAGESCATALOGUETheGeneralOverviewonInternationalBusinessNegotiationTheGeneralProceduresofInternationalBusinessNegotiationFiveLinksofInternationalBusinessNegotiationCross-CulturalProblemsinInternationalBusinessNegotiationBasicQualitiesforNegotiatorsSomeStylesinInternationalBusinessNegotiationTacticalExpressionsinBusinessNegotiationPreparationforExportingPreparationforNegotiationBusinessNegotiationIBusinessNegotiationIIBusinessNegotiationIIIBusinessNegotiationIVAftertheNegotiationChapterOneeGTheneralOverviewonInternationalBusinessNegotiationAnOverallFrameworkofInternationalBusinessNegotiationFeaturesofInternationalBusinessNegotiationBasicRulesofInternationalBusinessNegotiationStockPhrasesSomeTipsforTradeDelegationWhatisNegotiation?Theword“negotiation”derivesfromtheLatinInfinitive“negotiari”whichmeans“totradeordobusiness”.Thisworditselfisfromanotherword,“negare”（拒绝）,meaning“todeny”andanoun,otium(休闲),meaning“leisure”.Thus,theancientRomanbusinesspersonwould“denyleisure”untilthebusinesshasbeensettled.Negotiationisacommonhumanactivityaswellasaprocessthatpeopleundertakeeverydaytomanagetheirrelationshipssuchabuyerandaseller,ahusbandandwife,childrenandparents.Asthestakesinsomeofthesenegotiationsarenotveryhigh,peopleneednothavetogetpreparationsfortheprocessandtheoutcome.Butininternationalbusinessnegotiations,thestakesareusuallyhigh,peoplecannotignorethisfact,theyhavetogetpreplansinamorecarefulway.Bothpartiesinthiskindofnegotiationshouldcontacteachothersothattheycangetabetterdealratherthansimplyacceptingorrejectingwhattheotherisoffering.Thewholeprocessofnegotiationisbaseduponthepremisethatbothpartiesareinterdependent,thatis,onesidecannotgetwhathe/shewantswithouttakingtheotherintoconsideration.Intheprocessofnegotiation,therearenorules,tradition,rationalmethodsorhigherauthoritiesavailabletoresolvetheirconflictonceitcropsup.Negotiationisavoluntaryprocessofgivingandtakingwherebothpartiesamendtheiroffersandmodifytheirexpectationssoastocomeclosertoeachotherandtheycanquit,atanytime.2.WhydoPeopleNegotiate?Negotiationisattheheartofeverytransactionand,forthemostpart,itcomesdowntotheinteractionbetweentwosideswithacommongoal(profits)butdivergentmethods.Thesemethods(thedetailsofthecontract)mustbenegotiatedtothesatisfactionofbothparties.Aswewillseelaterthatitcanbeaverytryingprocessthatisfullofconfrontationandconcession.Whetheritistradeorinvestment,onepartywillalwaysarriveatthenegotiationtableinapositionofgreaterpower.Thatpower(thepotentialfortheprofits)mayderivefromtheextentofthedemandorfromtheabilitytosupply.Thepurposeofnegotiationistoredistributethatpotential.Thereisnosuchthingas“totakeitorleaveit”ininternationalbusiness.Infact,everythingisnegotiable.Italldependsontheexpertiseofthenegotiators.3.AnOverallFrameworkofIBNInternationalbusinessnegotiation(IBN)isaconsultativeprocessbetweengovernments,tradeorganizations,multinationalenterprises,privatebusinessfirmsandbuyersandsellersinrelationtoinvestmentandimportandexportofproducts,machineryandequipmentsandtechnology.Negotiationisoneoftheimportantstepstakentowardscompletingimportandexporttradeagreements.Toreachthedesiredresults,thenegotiatorsmustseriouslycarryouttherelativetradepoliciesoftheirowncountries.TheyshouldhavegoodmannersandspeakfluentEnglish.Theyshouldhaveaprofoundknowledgeofprofessionaltechnologyandinternationalmarkets.Theyshouldknowthespecifications,packing,featuresandadvantagesoftheproductsandbeabletouseidiomaticandprofessionalterms.Ingeneral,anoverallframeworkofinternationalbusinessnegotiationcoverthefollowingaspects:backgroundfactors,theatmosphereandtheprocess.3.1Backgroundfactorsrefertoobjectives,environment,marketsposition,thirdpartiesandnegotiators.Theyinfluencetheprocessofnegotiationandtheatmosphereinapositiveornegativeway.Objectivesmeanwhateachsidedesirestoachieveintheend.Theyarecommon,conflictingorcomplementaryinterestsinbothsides’wantingasuccessfultransactiontotakeplace;theirinterestsconflictasprofittooneiscosttotheother;andcomplementaryinterestbringsthemtogether.Commonandcomplementaryobjectivesleavedirectandpositiveeffectswhileconflictingobjectiveshavenegativeonesonthenegotiationprocess.Environmenthereisdefinedasthepolitical,socialandstructuralfactorsrelatedtobothparties.Itoftenhinderstheprocessininternationalnegotiation.Politicalandsocialaspectscanaffecttheprocesswhereasmarketstructuredoestheatmosphere.Themarketpositionofthepartiesinvolvedplaysaleadingroleinthenegotiationprocess.Thethirdpartiessuchasgovernments,brokers,consultantsandsoonmayinfluencetheprocesswiththeirownobjectives.Negotiatorsaffectthenegotiatingprocessbymeansoftheirownexperienceandnegotiatingskills.3.2Theatmosphereisofgreatimportancetothewholeprocessoftheinternationalbusinessnegotiation.Theatmosphereandtheprocessinfluenceeachotherateachstage.Atmospherereferstotheperceived“milieu”(氛围)aroundtheinteraction,howeachpartyregardstheother’sbehavior,andthepropertiesoftheprocess.Ithastodowithpeople’sperceptionofreality.Tobemoreexact,innegotiationitistheperceptionofrealitythatisfarmoreimportantthantherealityitself.Somecharacteristicsoftheatmospherearedominantatonestage;othersatotherstage.Forexample,cooperationisdominantatthepre-negotiationratherthanconflict,asbothsideslookformutualsolutions.Differentcharacteristicsofatmospheredominatefromprocesstoprocess.Thesecharacteristicsareclassifiedasconflictvscooperation,powervsdependenceandexpectations.Theexistenceofconflictandcooperationisafundamentalcharacteristicofthenegotiationprocess.Ononehand,bothsideshavesomecommoninterestsinfindingasolutiontotheproblemthatfitsthemboth.Ontheotherhand,aconflictofinterestmayarise,ascosttoonecanmeanincometotheother.Therelationbetweenpoweranddependenceiscloselyrelatedtotheactualpowerrelation,whichisaffectedbythevalueoftherelationshiptothesidesandtheiravailablealternatives.Asforexpectations,therearetwotypes:long-termexpectationswithrespecttothepossibilitiesandvaluesoffuturebusiness;short-termexpectationsregardingprospectsforthepresentdeal.Expectationsdevelopandchangeindifferentstagesoftheprocess.3.3Theprocessofinternationalbusinessnegotiationismadeupofthethreedifferentstages.Astageisdefinedasaspecificpartoftheprocessandcoversallactionsandcommunicationsbyeithersidepertaining(relevant)tonegotiationsmadeduringthatpart.Eithersidecommunicateswiththeothertoexchangeinformationwithineachstage.Aspecificstagecomestoanendwithwherebothsidesdecidetoproceedontothenextstageordecidetoabandonthecommunicationiftheyseenopointinfurthernegotiations.Thethreedifferentstagesare:pre-negotiation,face-toface-negotiationandpost-negotiation.3.3.1Thepre-negotiationstagestartsfromthefirstcontactbetweenthetwosideswhoseinterestindoingbusinesswitheachotherisshown.Fromthisstageon,bothsidesbegintounderstandoneanother’sneedsandevaluatethebenefitsofenteringintotheprocessofnegotiation.Thisstageismoreusuallyimportantthantheformalnegotiationsintheinternationalbusinessrelationship.Socialandinformalrelationshipsbetweennegotiators,trustandconfidenceineachotherareofgreathelp.Bothsidesnowalsostarttoformtheirstrategyforface-to-facenegotiationaswellastrytoforeseeandtakeprecautionsagainstpossibleevents.3.3.2AtFace-to-facestage,bothsidesknowthattheycanworktogetherforasolutiontoajointprobleminspiteofthatthefactthateachsidemayviewthesituationinitsownway.Thisindicatestheimportanceofhavingface-to-facenegotiationinanopen-mindedwayandgettingreadyseveralalternatives.Itistimeforbothsidestoexplorethedifferencesinpreferencesandexpectationssothattheycancomeclosertoeachother.Generally,thenegotiationprocessiscontrolledbythesidethathasarrangedtheagenda,forintheprocess,hecanstresshisownstrengthsandtheopponent’sweaknesses,thusputtingtheothersideonthedefensive.However,theagendamayrevealthepreparingside’spositioninadvanceandhencepermittheothersidetoprepareitscountermeasures.Somepeopleprefertostartnegotiationsbydiscussingandagreeingonbroadprinciples.Anotherwaytoensuresuccessatthisstageisaninitialdiscussiononitemsofcommoninterest,whichcanhelpcreateanatmosphereofcooperationbetweenbothsides.Asforthechoiceofstrategy,itdependson3.3.3Allthetermsandconditionsatthis(Post-Negotiation)stagehavebeenagreeduponwiththecontractbeingdrawnuptobesigned.Whatisworthnoticingisthatwritingthecontactandthewordinginitisanegotiationprocessinitself,formeaningandvaluesmaybedifferentbetweenbothsides.Thisstagemayleadtoarenewedface-to-facenegotiationifthereisnegativefeedbackfrombackgroundfactorsandatmosphere.Therefore,thetermsandconditionsagreeduponshouldbereadtoeachotherafterconcessionsareexchangedanddiscussionsbeheldbymeansofminutesofmeetings,orsomethingunpleasantandunexpectedmayariselateroninthecourseoftheimplementationofthecontractunlessbothsidesmakesurethattheyhavepaidenoughattentiontoeverydetail.Itisnecessarythatbothsidesshouldmakesurethattheyunderstandeverythingtheyhaveagreedonbeforetheyleavethenegotiationtable.4.ThreeTargetsofInternationalBusinessNegotiationForasuccessfulagreement,participantsneedtoknownegotiationprinciplesandtactics.Therearetwoprinciplesininternationalbusinessnegotiations.First,atthebeginningofthenegotiation,thenegotiatorsshouldknowwelltheirdesiredresultsandnotbewillfullymanipulatedbytheircounterparts.Onlywithadefinitepurposewillthenegotiatorsgraspthekeytothenegotiationandrealizetheirexpectedpurpose.Second,negotiatorsneedtoputforwardwhattheyexpect,takeafirmstandandmakecleartheirposition.Ininternationalbusinessnegotiations,priceisusuallythekeypointbecauseitdirectlyconcernstheeconomicbenefitstobothsides.Bothsidesseekadesiredresult.Togettheexpectedresultorachieveacertainpurpose,thenegotiators,shouldcalculatecarefullyanddecidethreedifferenttargets:1)thebesttarget;2)theintermediatetarget;3)theacceptabletarget4.1Thebesttargetistoachievealldesiredresults.Youshouldknowwellwhetheryourfirstquotationishighorlowifitisgenerallyacceptedbyyourcounterpart.Usuallybothsideshaveafewbargainsbeforeacceptance.Inthebeginning,makeahighofferandnegotiateforthebesttarget.Generallyspeaking,personswhofirmlymaintainthedesiredobjectivestotheendcanobtainthebestdeal.4.2Theintermediatetargetisfairforbothsides,althoughslightlylowerthanthebesttarget.Don’tbeginnegotiatingattoolowofaprice.Yourquotationistobealittlelowereachtime.Doitstepbystep.Eachtimeyoureducetheprice,youshouldremainseriousaboutthedesiredresults.Underthissituation,yourcounterpartmaywellacceptyourquotationasthebestpossibleprice.Itislikelythatyoumayreachanagreementatthisprice.Pleasekeepinmindthattakingaseriousandfirmattitudeisthekeytoavoidingfurtherpricereductionsandunnecessaryexpenses.Thiswillresultinincreasedprofits.Ifyoumeetwithnegotiatorswhoalwaysbargainusingharshlanguage,donotbeangry.Thisindicatesthattheywanttobuyyourproducts.Youshouldbepatientandfriendly,usingsoftwordsandmoderatespeakingspeedandtone,knowingwellwhatnottosay,whattosayandwhentosay.Whenyoufeelindangerofgoingintoadeadlockednegotiation,itissuggestedtorequestabreakorrest.Thenreadjustyourplanandcontinuethenegotiation.4.3Theacceptabletargetistheminimumlevelbothsidescanbear.Itshouldnotbeexposedtoyourcounterpartatthebeginningofthenegotiation.Yourcounterpartmaynotbelieveitandalthoughthepriceisthelowest,hemayrejectyourquotation.Ontheotherhand,eveniftheagreementisreachedattheminimumacceptableprice,yourcounterpartmaynothaveasatisfactorysenseofhavingbroughtyourpricedown…Inbrief,thepurposeofthenegotiationistoarriveatanagreementtobothsides’advantage.Thesuccessfulresultsofthenegotiationsdependonthedeterminedobjectives,perseveranceandthelanguageexpressedbythenegotiators.Theyshoulddotheirbesttousesoftwords,speakeuphemistically,uselessflowerylanguage,haveasenseofhumorandcreateaharmoniousatmosphere.5.BasicRulesofInternationalBusinessNegotiationInterdependenceConcealmentandOpennessDifferentNegotiatingSituationsBargainingMixandCreativityProposalExchangeWinnerorLoser5.1Interdependence“Onepalmcannotclap”.Thisistrueofeverydaylife,andisalsonoexceptiontoconductingabusinessnegotiation,inwhichbothsidesarelockedtogetheronaccountoftheirgoals.Asellercannotexistunlesshehasabuyer，whichdeterminesthisrelationshipbetweenthem.5.2ConcealmentandopennessInmanybusinessnegotiations,bothpartiesmayconcealtheirrealintentionsandgoalstobettertheirchancesofbestdealpossible.Asthisisanopensecret,smoothcommunicationandgoodmutualunderstandingwilltosomedegreebecomedifficult,whichdoeseasilyleadtomisunderstanding.Toachievemoresatisfactoryresults,bothpartieswillhavetodecidehowopenandhonesttheyshouldbeaboutpersonalpreferencesandneeds,andtowhatextenttheyshouldtrusttheotherside.5.3DifferentNegotiatingSituationsBothpartiesmustchangeasrequiredofthembysituations.Ifeitherofthemfailstofindoutwhichtypeofnegotiationisnecessaryinaparticularsituation,theodds(chances)arehewillfail.5.4BargainingMixandCreativityHowtomakeboth“sides”meetinnegotiationswithoutcausingmuchlosstoeither,whichmaybringbothoutofthewin-losemixandhelpaccomplishtheirobjective,requirescreativity.Andthediscoveryofthisisbasedontheenvironmentwherenegotiatorsfeelcooperativeanddedicatedtoseekingthebestsolutionpossibleinsteadofmeetingbutoneside’sneeds.5.5ProposalExchangeTheheartofnegotiationistheexchangeofoffersandproposals.Thereisanunstatedassumptioninnegotiationthatbothsideswillshowtheirexchangeofofferstotheprocessoffindingasolutionbymakingconcessionstotheotherside’soffer.Andthroughtheprocessofofferandcounter-offerapointisreachedonwhichbothsideswillagree.Tobesuccessful,anegotiatorneedstobeabletounderstandtheeventsthataretakingplaceduringtheexchangeofoffers,toknowhowtousethemtoadvantage,tokeeptheothersidefromusingthemtothenegotiator’sdisadvantage.5.6WinnerorLoserIntheprocessofbusinessnegotiation,ifbothpartiestrytoreachanagreementthatmaximizestheiroutcome,itmayleadeitherpartytobeconcernedaboutonlywithhisendsandignoretheneedsofotherside.Suchasituationwillmostprobablycreateproblems.Generallyspeaking,inacommonnegotiationthepartiesinvolvedareeitherwinnerorloser,butinaformalinternationalnegotiationsuchaphenomenonwillnotprobablyoccurjustbecauseoftheengagementofexperts.ChapterTwoTheGeneralProceduresofInternationalBusinessNegotiationPreparingStageAgreementConcludingandExecutingStageContactingandMateriallyNegotiableStage1.PreparingStageSincetherearetypicaltimeconstraintsofinternationalnegotiations,goodpreparationsmustbemadebeforenegotiationbegins.Goodnegotiationpreparationsmainlycovertwoaspects:1)gatheringinformationandplanningstrategiesandtactics;2)manipulationofthenegotiationsituation.Thebestnegotiatorsonbothsidesmanagesuchdetailswithgreatcare.Togetthemostoutofbusinessnegotiationsitisimportanttohaveeverycausalfactorworkinginyourfavor.Thefollowingchecklististhegeneralworkspreparedfornegotiation:l       Assessmentofthesituationandthepeoplel        Agendal        Concessionstrategiesl        FactstoconfirmduringthenegotiationlManipulationofthenegotiationsituation1.1AssessmentoftheSituationandthePeopleItiscommontolearnasmuchaspossibleaboutapotentialclientorpartnerbeforenegotiationsbegin.Allkindsofinformationmightbepertinentdependingonthenatureofthecontemplateddeal.Giventhecrucialnatureofbusinessnegotiations,knowledgeofaparticularexecutive’sbackground,hobbies,andfamilystatuscanbeagreatadvantage.Itshouldbeclearlyunderstoodthatknowingwhoyouwillbebargainingwithisfarmoreimportantthanmostpeoplewouldassume.Thelaststepisestimatetheprobablegoalandpreferencesofyourcounterpartbyusingtheanalysisofthetheirvariousdata.Forexample,theJapanesetendtofocusonbusinessrelations,andlong-term,gradualgrowthareJapanesemodesofbusinessreasoning.TheJapanesesidewillmostlikelybelookingforstablegrowthoveratleastaten-yearperiod.Meanwhile,Americancompaniesandexecutives,lookingatthesameinformation,wouldbefocusingonlengthofpaybackandprofitinthefirstthreeyears.1.2AgendaIngeneral,mostbusinessnegotiatorscometothenegotiationtablewithanagendaforthemeetinginmind.Itisimportanttodotwothingswiththatagenda.First,writeouttheagendaforallmembersofyournegotiatingteam.Second,don’ttrytosettleeachissueatatime.Inanybargainingsituation,itisbettertogetalltheissuesandinterestsoutonthetablebeforetryingtosettleanyoneofthem.Thiswillbeparticularlytruewhentheothersidebringsacarefullyconsideredagenda.Asafestrategyforyouistocheckbeforehandwithyourcounterpartabouttheagenda.However,tacticsonagendashouldbeusedwithcautionasitwillresultingreatdiscomfortforyourcounterpart.1.3ConcessionStrategiesConcessionstrategiesshouldbedecideduponandwrittendownbeforenegotiationsbegin.Suchaprocess—discussionandrecording—goesalongwaytowardensuringthatnegotiatorssticktothestrategies.Inthemidstofalongnegotiationthereisatendencytomakeconcessions.Whenmakingconcessions,youneedtohavespecificreasonsforthesizeofeachconcessionyoumake.WhenbargainingwithJapanese,youwillnoticeveryquicklythattheynevermakeaconcessionwithoutfirsttakingabreak.Issuesandagreementsarereconsideredawayfromthesocialpressureofthenegotiationtable.Thisisgoodpracticeforyoutolearn.1.4FactstoconfirmduringthenegotiationNomatterhowcarefultheanalysisandhowcompletetheinformationavailable,allcriticalinformationandassumptionshouldbereconfirmedatthenegotiationtable.Aspartofthepreparationsalistofsuchfactsshouldbediscussedamongthemembersofthenegotiationteam,andspecificquestionsshouldbewrittendown.1.5ManipulationoftheNegotiationSituationAnotheraspectofnegotiationpreliminariesismanipulationofthenegotiationsituationtoyourcompany’sadvantage.Particularlyinatoughnegotiation,everythingshouldbeworkinginyourfavor.Ifsituationalfactorsareworkingagainstyou,itwillbeimportanttomanipulatethembeforethenegotiationbegins.Also,managementofsituationalfactorsmaybeimportantoncethediscussionshavecommenced.Thereareseveralsituationalfactorsthatweconsiderparticularlyimportant:location,numberofparticipants,communicationchannels,timelimit1.5.1LocationThelocationofthenegotiationisperhapsthemostimportantsituationalfactorforseveralreasons,bothpracticalandpsychological.Havingthe“homecourt”isanadvantagebecausethehometeamhasallitsinformationresourcesreadilyavailable。Alternatively,thetravelingteambringstheminimumnecessaryresources,information,andnegotiatorsstayinhotels.Butperhapsagreateradvantagethehometeamenjoyispsychological—aperceptionofpower.Althoughrestaurant,bars,andgolfcoursesareallimportantlocationsforbargaining,bargainingbehaviorsarequitedifferent.Generallyintheseinformalsettingsalmostalltalkisnon-tasksounding.Task-relatedmattersarediscussedindirectly,briefly,andtowardtheendoftheevening,afterafewdrinks.1.5.2NumberofParticipantsInbusinessnegotiation,itisconsideredthatonesidewithfewerparticipantstobeaseriousdisadvantage.Itisimportanttofindoutwhomtheothersideissendingandthenputtingyourteamtogetherinresponse.Moreover,youshouldn’thesitatetoincludeadditionalmembersinyourteamsuchasfinancialortechnicalexperts.Theextraexpensemaybeawiseinvestment.Japanesenegotiatorsoftenbringalongtechnicalspecialistsandyoungernon-participantsforon-the-jobtraining.Theywillmakeonepersonberesponsibleforcarefullyobservingyournonverbalandverbalresponsetotheirproposals;thatperson’sevaluationandcommentswillappearinawrittenreport.Bydoingso,theymightgetmorevaluableinformation.1.5.3CommunicationChannelsFace-to-facenegotiationswithyourclientsarealwaysrecommended.Otherchannelsofcommunicationwhichmightbeusedforinternationalnegotiationareeffectiveandacceptable.Eventhoughthenegotiationisbuiltaroundalmostcontinuousface-to-facecontact,otherchannelsarealsohelpfulandshouldbeusedeffectively.1.5.4TimeLimitIflocationisnotthesinglemostimportantaspectofthenegotiationsituation,thenthetimelimitsare.Thesidethathasmoretimeisinastrongerbargainingposition.Anothersidewithlesstimeisforcedtomakeconcessionsinordertomovetheothertowardagreement.Theuseoftimecanbeapowerfulbargainingtool.Generallyspeaking,timeconstraintsareestablishedbyfactorsbeyondthecontrolofnegotiators.Onthesellingside,ordersmustbesecuredtokeepthefactorybusy,theexpensesofforeigntravelaresubstantialandthehomeofficemanagementmaybeinahurry.Negotiatorsshouldtrytodeterminebeforehandwhattheotherside’stimeconstraintsare.Inanycasenegotiatorscanmanagetimelimittotheiradvantage.2.ContactingandMateriallyNegotiableStageAsweknow,themostdifficultaspectofaninternationalbusinessnegotiationistheactualconductoftheface-to-facecommunication.Assumingthatthebestrepresentativeshavebeenchosentorepresen