The structure and function of

Thestructureandfunctionofcommunicationinsociety1HaroldD.Lasswell1InSchramm,W.锛�Roberts,D.F.(1971).TheProcessandEffectsofMassCommunication.Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,pp.84-99.OriginalpublishedinLymanBryson(1948)(ed.)TheCommunicationofIdeas.NewYork:TheInstituteforReligiousandSocialStudies.H.D.Lasswell216TheactofcommunicationConvenientwaytodescribeanactofcommunicationistoanswerthefollowingquestions:WhoSaysWhatInWhichChannelToWhomWithWhatEffect?Thescientificstudyoftheprocessofcommunicationtendstoconcentrateupononeoranotherofthesequestions.Scholarswhostudythe"who,"thecommunicator,lookintothefactorsthatinitiateandguidetheactofcommunication.Wecallthissubdivisionofthefieldofresearchcontrolanalysis.Specialistswhofocusuponthe"sayswhat"engageincontentanalysis.Thosewholookprimarilyattheradio,press,film,andotherchannelsofcommunicationaredoingmediaanalysis(p.84).Whentheprincipalconcerniswiththepersonsreachedbythemedia,wespeakofaudienceanalysis.Ifthequestionistheimpactuponaudiences,theproblemiseffectanalysis.Whethersuchdistinctionsareusefuldependsentirelyuponthedegreeofrefinementwhichisregardedasappropriatetoagivenscientificandmanagerialobjective.Oftenitissimplertocombineaudienceandeffectanalysis,forinstance,thantokeepthemapart.Ontheotherhand,wemaywanttoconcentrateontheanalysisofcontent,andforthispurposesubdividethefieldintothestudyofpurportandstyle,thefirstreferringtothemessage,andthesecondtothearrangementoftheelementsofwhichthemessageiscomposed.StructureandfunctionEnticingasitistoworkoutthesecategoriesinmoredetail,thepresentdiscussionhasadifferentscope.Wearelessinterestedindividinguptheactofcommunicationthaninviewingtheactasawholeinrelationtotheentiresocialprocess.Anyprocesscanbeexaminedintwoframesofreference,namely,structureandfunction;andouranalysisofcommunicationwilldealwiththespecializationsthatcarryoncertainfunctions,ofwhichthefollowingCommunicationinsociety217maybeclearlydistinguished:(i)thesurveillanceoftheenvironment;(2)thecorrelationofthepartsofsocietyinrespondingtotheenvironment;(3)thetransmissionofthesocialheritagefromonegenerationtothenext.BiologicalequivalencesAttheriskofcallingupfalseanalogies,wecangainperspectiveonhumansocietieswhenwenotethedegreetowhichcommunicationisafeatureoflifeateverylevel.Avitalentity,whetherrelativelyisolatedorinassociation,hasspecializedwaysofreceivingstimulifromtheenvironment.Thesingle-celledorganismorthemany-memberedgrouptendstomaintainaninternalequilibriumandtorespondtochangesintheenvironmentinawaythatmaintainsthisequilibrium.Therespondingprocesscallsforspecializedwaysofbringingthepartsofthewholeintoharmoniousaction(p.85).Multi-celledanimalsspecializecellstothefunctionofexternalcontactandinternalcorrelation.Thus,amongtheprimates,specializationisexemplifiedbyorganssuchastheearandeye,andthenervoussystemitself.Whenthestimulireceivinganddisseminatingpatternsoperatesmoothly,theseveralpartsoftheanimalactinconcertinreferencetotheenvironment("feeding,""fleeing,""attacking").Insomeanimalsocietiescertainmembersperformspecializedroles,andsurveytheenvironment.Individualsactas"sentinels,"standingapartfromtheherdorflockandcreatingadisturbancewheneveranalarmingchangeoccursinthesurroundings.Thetrumpeting,cackling,orshrillingofthesentinelisenoughtosettheherdinmotion.Amongtheactivitiesengagedinbyspecialized"leaders"istheinternalstimulationof"followers"toadaptinanorderlymannertothecircumstancesheraldedbythesentinels.Withinasingle,highlydifferentiatedorganism,incomingnervousimpulsesandoutgoingimpulsesaretransmittedalongfibersthatmakesynapticjunctionwithotherfibers.Thecriticalpointsintheprocessoccurattherelaystations,wherethearrivingimpulsemaybetooweaktoreachthethresholdwhichstirsthenextlinkintoaction.Atthehighercenters,separatecurrentsmodifyoneanother,producingresultsthatdifferinmanywaysfromtheoutcomewheneachisallowedtocontinueaseparatepath.Atanyrelaystationthereisnoconductance,totalconductance,orintermediateconductance.Thesamecategoriesapplytowhatgoesonamongmembersofananimalsociety.TheslyfoxmayapproachthebarnyardinawaythatH.D.Lasswell218suppliestoomeagerstimuliforthesentineltosoundthealarm.Ortheattackinganimalmayeliminatethesentinelbeforehemakesmorethanafeebleoutcry.Obviouslythereiseverygradationpossiblebetweentotalconductanceandnoconductance(p.86).AttentioninWorldSocietyWhenweexaminetheprocessofcommunicationofanystateintheworldcommunity,wenotethreecategoriesofspecialists.Onegroupsurveysthepoliticalenvironmentofthestateasawhole,anothercorrelatestheresponseofthewholestatetotheenvironment,andthethirdtransmitscertainpatternsofresponsefromtheoldtotheyoung.Diplomats,attaches,andforeigncorrespondentsarerepresentativeofthosewhospecializeontheenvironment.Editors,journalists,andspeakersarecorrelatorsoftheinternalresponse.Educatorsinfamilyandschooltransmitthesocialinheritance.Communicationswhichoriginateabroadpassthroughsequencesinwhichvarioussendersandreceiversarelinkedwithoneanother.Subjecttomodificationateachrelaypointinthechain,messagesoriginatingwithadiplomatorforeigncorrespondentmaypassthrougheditorialdesksandeventuallyreachlargeaudiences.Ifwethinkoftheworldattentionprocessasaseriesofattentionframes,itispossibletodescribetherateatwhichcomparablecontentisbroughttothenoticeofindividualsandgroups.Wecaninquireintothepointatwhich"conductance"nolongeroccurs;andwecanlookintotherangebetween"totalconductance"and"minimumconductance."Themetropolitanandpoliticalcentersoftheworldhavemuchincommonwiththeinterdependence,differentiation,andactivityofthecorticalorsubcorticalcentersofanindividualorganism.Hencetheattentionframesfoundinthesespotsarethemostvariable,refined,andinteractiveofallframesintheworldcommunity.Attheotherextremearetheattentionframesofprimitiveinhabitantsofisolatedareas.Notthatfolkculturesarewhollyuntouchedbyindustrialcivilization.WhetherweparachuteintotheinteriorofNewGuinea,orlandontheslopesoftheHimalayas,wefindnotribewhollyoutofcontactwiththeworld.Thelongthreadsoftrade,ofmissionaryzeal,ofadventurousexplorationandscientificfieldstudy,andofglobalwarreachfardistantplaces.Nooneisentirelyoutofthisworld(p.87).Communicationinsociety219Amongprimitivesthefinalshapetakenbycommunicationistheballadortale.Remotehappeningsinthegreatworldofaffairs,happeningsthatcometothenoticeofmetropolitanaudiences,arereflected,howeverdimly,inthethematicmaterialofballadsingersandreciters.Inthesecreationsfarawaypoliticalleadersmaybeshownsupplyinglandtothepeasantsorrestoringanabundanceofgametothehills.Whenwepushupstreamoftheflowofcommunication,wenotethattheimmediaterelayfunctionfornomadicandremotetribesmenissometimesperformedbytheinhabitantsofsettledvillageswithwhomtheycomeinoccasionalcontact.There-layercanbetheschoolteacher,doctor,judge,taxcollector,policeman,soldier,peddler,salesman,missionary,student;inanycaseheisanassemblypointofnewsandcomment.MoredetailedequivalencesThecommunicationprocessesofhumansociety,whenexaminedindetail,revealmanyequivalencestothespecializationsfoundinthephysicalorganismandintheloweranimalsocieties.Thediplomats,forinstance,ofasinglestatearestationedallovertheworldandsendmessagestoafewfocalpoints.Obviously,theseincomingreportsmovefromthemanytothefew,wheretheyinteractupononeanother.Lateron,thesequencespreadsfanwiseaccordingtoafew-to-manypattern,aswhenaforeignsecretarygivesaspeechinpublic,anarticleisputoutinthepress,oranewsfilmisdistributedtothetheaters.Thelinesleadingfromtheouterenvironmentofthestatearefunctionallyequivalenttotheafferentchannelsthatconveyincomingnervousimpulsestothecentralnervoussystemofasingleanimal,andtothemeansbywhichalarmisspreadamongaflock.Outgoing,orefferent,impulsesdisplaycorrespondingparallels.Thecentralnervoussystemofthebodyisonlypartlyinvolvedintheentireflowofafferent-efferentimpulses.Thereareautomaticsystemsthatcanactononeanotherwithoutinvolvingthe"higher"centersatall(p.88).Thestabilityoftheinternalenvironmentismaintainedprincipallythroughthemediationofthevegetiveorautonomicspecializationsofthenervoussystem.Similarly,mostofthemessageswithinanystatedonotinvolvethecentralchannelsofcommunication.Theytakeplacewithinfamilies,neighborhoods,shops,fieldgangs,andotherlocalcontexts.Mostoftheeducationalprocessiscarriedonthesameway.H.D.Lasswell220Afurthersetofsignificantequivalencesisrelatedtothecircuitsofcommunication,whicharepredominantlyone-wayortwo-way,dependinguponthedegreeofreciprocitybetweencommunicatorsandaudience.Or,toexpressitdifferently,two-waycommunicationoccurswhenthesendingandreceivingfunctionsareperformedwithequalfrequencybytwoormorepersons.Aconversationisusuallyassumedtobeapatternoftwo-waycommunication(althoughmonologuesarehardlyunknown).Themoderninstrumentsofmasscommunicationgiveanenormousadvantagetothecontrollersofprintingplants,broadcastingequipment,andotherformsoffixedandspecializedcapital.Butitshouldbenotedthataudiencesdo"talkback,"aftersomedelay;andmanycontrollersofmassmediausescientificmethodsofsamplinginordertoexpeditethisclosingofthecircuit.Circuitsoftwo-waycontactareparticularlyinevidenceamongthegreatmetropolitan,political,andculturalcentersoftheworld.NewYork,Moscow,London,andParis,forexample,areinintensetwo-waycontact,evenwhentheflowisseverelycurtailedinvolume(asbetweenMoscowandNewYork).Eveninsignificantsitesbecomeworldcenterswhentheyaretransformedintocapitalcities(Canberra,Australia;Ankara,Turkey;theDistrictofColumbia,U.S.A.).AculturalcenterlikeVaticanCityisinintensetwo-wayrelationshipwiththedominantcentersthroughouttheworld.EvenspecializedproductioncenterslikeHollywood,despitetheirpreponderanceofoutgoingmaterial,receiveanenormousvolumeofmessages.Afurtherdistinctioncanbemadebetweenmessagecontrollingandmessagehandlingcentersandsocialformations.The(p.89)messagecenterinthevastPentagonBuildingoftheWarDepartmentinWashingtontransmitswithnomorethanaccidentalchangeincomingmessagestoaddressees.Thisistheroleoftheprintersanddistributorsofbooks;ofdispatchers,linemen,andmessengersconnectedwithtelegraphiccommunication;ofradioengineersandothertechniciansassociatedwithbroadcasting.Suchmessagehandlersmaybecontrastedwiththosewhoaffectthecontentofwhatissaid,whichisthefunctionofeditors,censors,andpropagandists.Speakingofthesymbolspecialistsasawhole,therefore,weseparatethemintothemanip-ulators(controllers)andthehandlers;thefirstgrouptypicallymodifiescontent,whiletheseconddoesnot.Communicationinsociety221NeedsandvaluesThoughwehavenotedanumberoffunctionalandstructuralequivalencesbetweencommunicationinhumansocietiesandotherlivingentities,itisnotimpliedthatwecanmostfruitfullyinvestigatetheprocessofcommunicationinAmericaortheworldbythemethodsmostappropriatetoresearchontheloweranimalsoronsinglephysicalorganisms.Incomparativepsychologywhenwedescribesomepartofthesurroundingsofarat,cat,ormonkeyasastimulus(thatis,aspartoftheenvironmentreachingtheattentionoftheanimal),wecannotasktherat;weuseothermeansofinferringperception.Whenhumanbeingsareourobjectsofinvestigation,wecaninterviewthegreat"talkinganimal."(Thisisnotthatwetakeeverythingatfacevalue.Sometimesweforecasttheoppositeofwhatthepersonsaysheintendstodo.Inthiscase,wedependonotherindications,bothverbalandnonverbal.)Inthestudyoflivingforms,itisrewarding,aswehavesaid,tolookatthemasmodifiersoftheenvironmentintheprocessofgratifyingneeds,andhenceofmaintainingasteadystateofinternalequilibrium.Food,sex,andotheractivitieswhichinvolvetheenvironmentcanbeexaminedonacomparativebasis.Sincehumanbeingsexhibitspeechreactions,wecanin-vestigatemanymorerelationshipsthaninthenonhumanspecies(p.90).Allowingforthedatafurnishedbyspeech(andothercommunicativeacts),wecaninvestigatehumansocietyintermsofvalues;thatis,inreferencetocategoriesofrelationshipsthatarerecognizedobjectsofgratification.InAmerica,forexample,itrequiresnoelaboratetechniqueofstudytodiscernthatpowerandrespectarevalues.Wecandemonstratethisbylisteningtotestimony,andbywatchingwhatisdonewhenopportunityisafforded.Itispossibletoestablishalistofvaluescurrentinanygroupchosenforinvestigation.Furtherthanthis,wecandiscovertherankorderinwhichthesevaluesaresought.Wecanrankthemembersofthegroupaccordingtotheirpositionsinrelationtothevalues.Sofarasindustrialcivilizationisconcerned,wehavenohesitationinsayingthatpower,wealth,respect,well-being,andenlightenmentareamongthevalues.Ifwestopwiththislist,whichisnotexhaustive,wecandescribeonthebasisofavailableknowledge(fragmentarythoughitmayoftenbe)thesocialstructureofmostoftheworld.Sincevaluesarenotequallydistributed,thesocialstructurerevealsmoreorlessconcentrationofrelativelyabundantsharesofpower,wealth,andotherH.D.Lasswell222valuesinafewhands.Insomeplacesthisconcentrationispassedonfromgenerationtogeneration,formingcastesratherthanamobilesociety.Ineverysocietythevaluesareshapedanddistributedaccordingtomoreorlessdistinctivepatterns(institutions).Theinstitutionsincludecommunicationswhichareinvokedinsupportofthenetworkasawhole.Suchcommunicationsaretheideology;andinrelationtopowerwecandifferentiatethepoliticaldoctrine,thepoliticalformula,andthemiranda.3TheseareillustratedintheUnitedStatesbythedoctrineofindividualism,theparagraphsoftheConstitution,whicharetheformula,andtheceremoniesandlegendsofpubliclife,whichcomprisetheMiranda(p.91).Theideologyiscommunicatedtotherisinggenerationthroughsuchspecializedagenciesasthehomeandschool.Ideologyisonlypartofthemythsofanygivensociety.Theremaybecounterideologiesdirectedagainstthedominantdoctrine,formula,andmiranda.Todaythepowerstructureofworldpoliticsisdeeplyaffectedbyideologicalconflict,andbytheroleoftwogiantpowers,theUnitedStatesandRussia.Therulingelitesviewoneanotheraspotentialenemies,notonlyinthesensethatinterstatedifferencesmaybesettledbywar,butinthemoreurgentsensethattheideologyoftheothermayappealtodisaffectedelementsathomeandweakentheinternalpowerpositionofeachrulingclass.SocialconflictandcommunicationUnderthecircumstances,onerulingelementisespeciallyalerttotheother,andreliesuponcommunicationasameansofpreservingpower.Onefunctionofcommunication,therefore,istoprovideintelligenceaboutwhattheothereliteisdoing,andaboutitsstrength.Fearfulthatintelligencechan-nelswillbecontrolledbytheother,inordertowithholdanddistort,thereisatendencytoresorttosecretsurveillance.Henceinternationalespionageisintensifiedaboveitsusuallevelinpeacetime.Moreover,effortsaremadeto"blackout"theselfinordertocounteractthescrutinyofthepotentialenemy.Inaddition,communicationisemployedaffirmativelyforthepurposeofestablishingcontactwithaudienceswithinthefrontiersoftheotherpower.Thesevariedactivitiesaremanifestedintheuseofopenandsecretagentstoscrutinizetheother,incounterintelligencework,incensorshipandtravelrestriction,inbroadcastingandotherinformationalactivitiesacrossfrontiers.Communicationinsociety223Rulingelitesarealsosensitizedtopotentialthreatsintheinternalenvironment.Besidesusingopensourcesofinformation,secretmeasuresarealsoadopted.Precautionsaretakentoimpose"security"uponasmanypolicymattersaspossible.Atthesametime,theideologyoftheeliteisreaffirmed,andcounter-ideologiesaresuppressed(p.92).Theprocessesheresketchedrunparalleltophenomenatobeobservedthroughouttheanimalkingdom.Specializedagenciesareusedtokeepawareofthreatsandopportunitiesintheexternalenvironment.Theparallelsincludethesurveillanceexercisedovertheinternalenvironment,sinceamongtheloweranimalssomeherdleaderssometimesgiveevidenceoffearingattackontwofronts,internalandexternal;theykeepanuneasyeyeonbothenvironments.Asameansofpreventingsurveillancebyanenemy,well-knowndevicesareatthedisposalofcertainspecies,e.g.,thesquid'suseofaliquidfogscreen,theprotectivecolorationofthechameleon.However,thereappearstobenocorrelateofthedistinctionbetweenthe"secret"and"open"channelsofhumansociety.Insideaphysicalorganismtheclosestparalleltosocialrevolutionwouldbethegrowthofnewnervousconnectionswithpartsofthebodythatrival,andcantaketheplaceof,theexistingstructuresofcentralintegration.Canthisbesaidtooccurastheembryodevelopsinthemother'sbody?Or,ifwetakeadestructive,asdistinctfromareconstructive,process,canweproperlysaythatinternalsurveillanceoccursinregardtocancer,sincecancerscompeteforthefoodsuppliesofthebody?EfficientcommunicationTheanalysisuptothepresentimpliescertaincriteriaofefficiencyorinefficiencyincommunication.Inhumansocietiestheprocessisefficienttothedegreethatrationaljudgmentsarefacilitated.Arationaljudgmentimplementsvaluegoals.Inanimalsocietiescommunicationisefficientwhenitaidssurvival,orsomeotherspecifiedneedoftheaggregate.Thesamecri-teriacanbeappliedtothesingleorganism.Onetaskofarationallyorganizedsocietyistodiscoverandcontrolanyfactorsthatinterferewithefficientcommunication.Somelimitingfactorsarepsychotechnical.Destructiveradiation,forinstance,maybepresentintheenvironment,yetremainundetectedowingtothelimitedrangeoftheunaidedorganism(p.93).H.D.Lasswell224Buteventechnicalinsufficienciescanbeovercomebyknowledge.Inrecentyearsshortwavebroadcastinghasbeeninterferedwithbydisturbanceswhichwilleitherbesurmounted,orwilleventuallyleadtotheabandonmentofthismodeofbroadcasting.Duringthepastfewyearsadvanceshavebeenmadetowardprovidingsatisfactorysubstitutesfordefectivehearingandseeing.Alessdramatic,thoughnolessimportant,developmenthasbeenthediscoveryofhowinadequatereadinghabitscanbecorrected.Thereare,ofcourse,deliberateobstaclesputinthewayofcommunication,likecensorshipanddrasticcurtailmentoftravel.Tosomeextentobstaclescanbesurmountedbyskillfulevasion,butinthelongrunitwilldoubtlessbemoreefficienttogetridofthembyconsentorcoercion.Sheerignoranceisapervasivefactorwhoseconsequenceshaveneverbeenadequatelyassessed.Ignoranceheremeanstheabsence,atagivenpointintheprocessofcommunication,ofknowledgewhichisavailableelsewhereinsociety.Lackingpropertraining,thepersonnelengagedingatheringanddisseminatingintelligenceiscontinuallymisconstruingoroverlookingthefacts,ifwedefinethefactsaswhattheobjective,trainedobservercouldfind.Inaccountingforinefficiencywemustnotoverlookthelowevaluationsputuponskillinrelevantcommunication.Toooftenirrelevant,orpositivelydistorting,performancescommandprestige.Intheinterestofa"scoop,"thereportergivesasensationaltwisttoamildinternationalconference,andcon-tributestothepopularimageofinternationalpoliticsaschronic,intenseconflict,andlittleelse.Specialistsincommunicationoftenfailtokeepupwiththeexpansionofknowledgeabouttheprocess;notethereluctancewithwhichmanyvisualdeviceshavebeenadopted.Anddespiteresearchonvocabulary,manymasscommunicatorsselectwordsthatfail.Thishappens,forinstance,whenaforeigncorrespondentallowshimselftobecomeabsorbedintheforeignsceneandforgetsthathishomeaudiencehasnodirectequivalentsinexperiencefor"left,""center,"andotherfactionalterms(p.94).Besidesskillfactors,thelevelofefficiencyissometimesadverselyinfluencedbypersonalitystructure.Anoptimistic,outgoingpersonmayhunt"birdsofafeather"andgainanun-correctedandhenceexaggeratedlyoptimisticviewofevents.Onthecontrary,whenpessimistic,broodingpersonalitiesmix,theychoosequitedifferentbirds,whoconfirmtheirgloom.Therearealsoimportantdifferencesamongpeoplewhichspringfromcontrastsinintelligenceandenergy.Communicationinsociety225Someofthemostseriousthreatstoefficientcommunicationforthecommunityasawholerelatetothevaluesofpower,wealth,andrespect.Perhapsthemoststrikingexamplesofpowerdistortionoccurwhenthecontentofcommunicationisdeliberatelyadjustedtofitanideologyorcounterideology.Distortionsrelatedtowealthnotonlyarisefromattemptstoinfluencethemarket,forinstance,butfromrigidconceptionsofeconomicinterest.Atypicalinstanceofinefficienciesconnectedwithrespect(socialclass)occurswhenanupper-classpersonmixesonlywithpersonsofhisownstratumandforgetstocorrecthisperspectivebybeingexposedtomembersofotherclasses.ResearchinCommunicationTheforegoingremindersofsomefactorsthatinterferewithefficientcommunicationpointtothekindsofresearch,whichcanusefullybeconductedonrepresentativelinksinthechainofcommunication.Eachagentisavortexofinteractingenvironmentalandpredispositionalfactors.Whoeverperformsarelayfunctioncanbeexaminedinrelationtoinputandoutput.Whatstatementsarebroughttotheat