2019年郑州大学外语学院855专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之语言学教程考研冲刺五套模拟题

考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 1 页，共 43 页 目录 工贸企业有限空间作业目录特种设备作业人员作业种类与目录特种设备作业人员目录1类医疗器械目录高值医用耗材参考目录 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之语言学教 程考研冲刺五套模拟题（一） .................................................................................................. 2 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之语言学教 程考研冲刺五套模拟题（二） ................................................................................................ 10 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之语言学教 程考研冲刺五套模拟题（三） ................................................................................................ 19 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之语言学教 程考研冲刺五套模拟题（四） ................................................................................................ 28 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之语言学教 程考研冲刺五套模拟题（五） ................................................................................................ 36 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 2 页，共 43 页 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之 语言学教程考研冲刺五套模拟题（一） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Entailment 【答案】 It refers to the relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other. If X is true, Y is necessarily true，and if X is false, Y may be true or false. For example, the sentence “He has been to France” entails “He has been to Europe”. 2． Construal and construal operations 【答案】Construal is the competence to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc. Construal operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions. 3． Speech Act Theory 【答案】 Speech act theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developed by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”，and to perform acts. 4． IC analysis 【答案】 IC analysis: IC analysis （immediate constituent analysis） refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups （or phrases ） ,which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. In practice, for the sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word. 5． Endocentric construction 【答案】 Endocentric construction: An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center, or head. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. Noun phrases like “Lovely Lucy” are typical endocentric constructions. 6． Stem 【答案】 A stem is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, “friend-” in friends,and “friendship-” in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 3 页，共 43 页 7． Hyponymy 【答案】 Hyponymy. It refers to the sense relationship between a more general, more inclusive and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordiante, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. For example, the hyponymy relationship could be established between “animal” and “rabbit”. 8． Linguistic relativity 【答案】 This is one of two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. It states that similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world is. For example, not every language has the same set of words for the colors; in Spanish there is no word that corresponds to the English meaning of “blue”. 9． Back-formation 【答案】 Back formation refers to an abnormal type of word formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, the word “television” appeared before “televise”，and so does “editor” to “edit”. 10．The Innateness Hypothesis 【答案】 The innateness hypothesis was proposed by Chomsky. It says that the ability to acquire a human language is part of the biologically innate equipment of the human being, and that an infant is bom with this knowledge of basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．What are closed-class words and open-class words? 【答案】 A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc., new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items. However, the distinction between closed-class words and open-class words is not quiet as clear-cut as it seems. Preposition，though a closed-class，is relatively open one in English. Expressions such as “regarding”，“throughout”， “out of” are now recognized as prepositions or complex prepositions. In respect of open-class items，auxiliary verbs，which used to be ranked as open-class words, are relatively closed in number. 12．Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modem linguistics? 【答案】 Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language. He believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, signs must be part of a system of signs, called conventions. He held that the sign is the union of a form （signifier） and an idea （signified） , and it is the central fact of language. By providing answers to questions concerning many aspects of language, Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 4 页，共 43 页 nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage. 13．Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modem linguistics? 【答案】 Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language. He believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, signs must be part of a system of signs, called conventions. He held that the sign is the union of a form （signifier） and an idea （signified） , and it is the central fact of language. By providing answers to questions concerning many aspects of language, Saussure made clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. His ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage. 14．Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two. 【答案】 By definition, phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including the production of speech, while phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages. Phonetics is the study of actual sounds, that is, the analysis and modeling the speech signal; phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns in different languages or within a language. In this sense, phonetics is concrete, while phonology is abstract. What phonetics studies is the speech sound, namely phone, what phonology studies is phoneme. 15．How do you understand syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations? 【答案】 In Saussure‟s view, language is a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: signified and signifier. And the relationships between these two parts are arbitrary. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc. e.g. between s, p, and r in a form such as spring, or between a subject and a verb in constructions such as Bill hunts. The syntagmatic relation is also called horizontal relation or chain relation. Paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure. The paradigmatic relation is also called vertical relation or choice relation. 16．What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield? 【答案】 For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of the positivistic brand of psychology known as “behaviourism”. When the behaviourist methodology entered linguistics via Bloomfield, s writings, the popular practice in linguistic studies was to accept what a native speaker says in his language and to discard what he says about it. This is because of the belief that a linguistic description was reliable when based on observation of unstudied utterances by speakers; it was unreliable if the analyst had resorted to asking speakers questions such as “Can you say ... in your language?” 三、Essay-question 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 5 页，共 43 页 17．What is linguistic relativity and why is it so important in linguistic studies? 【答案】 Linguistic relativity is one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that distinctions encoded in one language are unique to that language alone, and “there is no limit to the structural diversity of language”. Therefore, similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For example, in English, the boundaries among the color spectrum are made in this way: red, orange, violet, blue, and yellow. In fact, these discriminations are arbitrary, and in other language the boundaries are indeed different. In neither Spanish, Italian nor Russian is there a word that corresponds to the English meaning of “blue”. Linguistic relativity is important in linguistic studies because it recognizes the fact of linguistic diversity, which stands as the base which descriptive linguistics lies on. Linguistic diversity also triggers out the study of the linguistic similarity. The study of the linguistic relativity has shed light on two important insights: there is nowadays recognition that language, as a code, reflects cultural and preoccupations and constrains the way people think. 18．What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation? 【答案】 When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless, consonants （p, s, t） are produced in this way; but when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced （b, z, d） are voiced consonants. 19．Chomsky sets up three different targets to aim at: observational adequacy, descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy. Define and discuss them. 【答案】 According to Chomsky, observational adequacy requires a grammar to be able to produce correct explanations for raw linguistic data; that is, it should be able to capture speakers intuitions about grammaticality. On the second level, that is, on the level of descriptive adequacy, a grammar should not only produce correct explanations for raw linguistic data, but also produce correct explanations for the linguistic competence of the speaker and hearer; that is, it should reflect speakers5 competence. On the third, and the highest, level, i.e. explanatory adequacy, a grammar that is sufficiently described should reveal linguistic competence and then relate it with universal grammars in order to be related to the initial state of the human mind for the purpose of revealing human cognitive systems; that is, it should account for the leamability of language. In Chomsky‟s point of view, it is far from adequate for a grammar to merely distinguish those strings of words which are sentences of the language from those which are not sentences of the language in question. Neither is it for a grammar to assign structures to sentences that match native speaker‟s intuition about structure and meaning. However, this is where the Structuralistic approach stops. Therefore, Chomsky argues for a generative grammar since it is able to explain how the facts are the way they are and how they arise in the mind of the speaker and hears. And it is after successful descriptions of many languages and subsequent generalizations of universal features of human language that it is possible to explore the initial state of the human mind that contains universal grammars. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 6 页，共 43 页 20．There are two kinds of grammar based on different linguistic points of view. They are prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. A grammar may describe how language is actually spoken and/ or written, and may not state or postulate how it ought to be spoken or written. But a grammar may also state the rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. Which grammar is descriptive grammar, and which grammar is prescriptive grammar? Cite some examples to give your reasons. 【答案】 The first one is typical of descriptive grammar, while the second one is prescriptive grammar. The descriptive grammar aims to describe how people speak and detail the underlying knowledge. It is believed in descriptive grammar that whatever occurs in natural speech, such as hesitation, incomplete utterance, should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, or corrupt; modem linguistics is mostly descriptive. Whereas, the prescriptive approach aims to teach people how to speak, read, and write a particular language; in the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. For example, the statement that “in standard English, a double negative is rarely used” is a description, showing how the language is used in standard English, regardless whether it is correct or not. <6You should never use a double-negative” is a typical grammar rule that prescribes what should be grammatically correct in the Standard English. As for the spelling, prescription says “judgment” is correct, but description accurately points out that “judgement” is considered by Edited English to be correct too, and a descriptive account for these two different spellings will show how the later one is used and who uses it. 四、Synthesis 21．Read the following paragraph and list all the function words you can find. （Include all forms of be as function words.） Give the percentage of function words in this paragraph. 【答案】 She was a small woman, old and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women of her age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman, small and thin as she was, possessed a strength that came from generations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bag of laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift the heavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long way home. The function words in this passage include: she, was, a, and, when, she, for, she, was, past, of, her, were, in, but, this, and, as, she, a, that, from, of, would, to, her, a, of, that, had, over, she, would, the, it, on, her, and, it, and the. Altogether there are 85 words in this passage, and 40 of them are function words. Then the percentage of function words in this passage is 40/85 ≈ 47%. 22．What are non-language outcomes? 【答案】（1） Affect cultivation, such as confidence, motivation, interest （2）Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc. （3）Cultural understanding 23．Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple? 【答案】 Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 7 页，共 43 页 24．Define the following terms. （1）performative （2）constative （3）locutionary act （4）illocutionary act （5） perlocutionary act （6）cooperative principle （7）conversational implicature （8）entailment （9） ostensive communication （10）communicative principle of relevance （11）relevance （as a comparative notion） （12）（Horn‟s） Q-principle （13）R-principle （14）division of pragmatic labor （15）Levinson‟s three heuristics 【答案】 （1） A performative is a sentence like ul name this ship the Queen Elizabeth,,? which does not describe things and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of a performative sentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. Verbs like “name” are known as performative verbs. （2） In contrast to performative, sentences like “I pour some liquid into the tube” is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. （3） The locutionary act is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, i.e. we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. For example，when somebody says MorningV% we could say he produced a sound, word or sentence — “Morning!” （4） The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting, （5）The perlocutionary act concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed. （6） This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads uMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and manner maxims. （7） This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意 in Chinese. （8） This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second. For example, when “I saw a boy” is true, “I saw a child” is necessarily true; and if “I saw a child” is not true, “I saw a boy” will not be true either. （9） “ Ostensive communication”，or “ inferential communication”， is a shorthand for “ostensive-inferential communication”. That is, communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference on the part of the hearer and ostension （making clear of one‟s 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 8 页，共 43 页 intention to express something） on the part of the speaker. （10） This is the principle first proposed by Sperber and Wilson in 1986, which reads “Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.” （11） Sperber and Wilson have defined the notion relevance in three ways. In their view, relevance is a comparative concept, so they also have an extent-conditions format as follows: Extent condition 1: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contex加 al effects in this context are large. Extent condition 2: an assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small. （12）The Q-principle （Hearer-based） : MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION SUFFICIENT （cf. Quantity 1） SAY AS MUCH AS YOU CAN （ given R） （13） The R-principle （Speaker-based） : MAKE YOUR CONTRIBUTION NECESSARY （ cf. Relation, Quantity2, Manner） SAY NO MORE THAN YOU MUST （given Q） （14） Horn observes that the Q-based and R-based principles often directly collide and suggests the resolution comes from a division of pragmatic labor, which reads uThe use of a marked （relatively complex and/or prolix） expression when a corresponding unmarked （simpler, less “effortful”） alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message （one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed） . （15）In 2000, Levinson renamed his three principles as heuristics and simplified the contents as follows: Heuristic 1 What isn‟t said, isn‟t. Heuristic 2 What is simply described is stereotypically exemplified. Heuristic 3 What‟s said in an abnormal way, isn‟t normal; or Marked message indicates marked situation. 25．You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language： The proof of the pudding is in the eating. Let sleeping dogs lie. You can‟t make a silk purse out of a sow‟s ear. Rome was not built in a day. When in Rome, do as the Romans do. All roads lead to Rome. 【答案】 Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the 4The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 9 页，共 43 页 26．What is Generative Semantics? 【答案】 Generative Semantics was developed as a reaction to Chomsky‟s syntactic-based TG Grammar. This theory considers that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure. Linguists working within this theory hold that there is no principled distinction between syntactic processes and semantic processes. This notion was accompanied by a number of subsidiary hypotheses. First, the purely syntactic level of deep structure posited by Chomsky （1965 ） cannot exist. Second, the initial representations of derivations are logical representations identical from language to language. Third, all aspects of meaning are representable in phrase-marker forms. In other words, the derivation of a sentence is a direct transformational mapping from semantics to surface structure. While Generative Semantics is no longer regarded as a viable grammatical model, it is important in a number of ways. First, it was generative semanticists that started an intensive investigation of syntactic phenomena which defied formalisation by means of transformational rules. Second, many proposals originally disputed by generative semanticists have since appeared in the interpretivist literature. Finally, the important initial studies which Generative Semantics inspired on various topics are becoming more and more appreciated.I.Fill in the blanks. 27．Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard （e. g. ain’t） would be acceptable, even appropriate. 【答案】 In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “givmme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin‟？” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 10 页，共 43 页 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之 语言学教程考研冲刺五套模拟题（二） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． 1-narrator 【答案】 The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this ease the critics call the narrator a FIRST-PERSON NARRATOR or I- NARRATOR because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun I is used. First-person narrators are often said to be “limited” because they don‟t know all the faces or “unreliable” because they trick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths. This often happens in murder and mystery stories. 2． subordination 【答案】 Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head. 3． Transformational-Generative grammar 【答案】 Transformational-generative grammar is proposed by Noam Chomsky. He postulated a syntactic base of language （called deep structure） , which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of （possibly universal） rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that is identical to an actual sentence of a language, after the mediating of a series of rules （called transformations ） that act upon the deep structures. 4． Contextual meaning 【答案】 It is also called speaker‟s meaning, or utterance meaning, which is more closely related to the context. For example, when a person says “My bag is heavy”，what he actually means may be asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. 5． Locutionary Act, Illocutinary Act and Perlocutionary Act 【答案】 According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. A locutionary act is the uttering of words, phrases, and clauses, which conveys meaning by giving out meaningful sounds. Therefore, when somebody says „„Morning‟‟，we can ask a question like “What did he do?‟‟，and the answer could be “He offered a greeting.” 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 11 页，共 43 页 An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker‟s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. Therefore, for the same example，we can say “He meant it as a greeting”. A perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance. Thus，by saying “Morning!” the speaker has made it clear that he wants to keep friendly relations with the hearer. 6． distinctive features 【答案】 a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people. 7． Concatenation 【答案】 What makes a word separate from other words is that all the letters are lined up together with no intervening spaces. That is, in a word, all letters are concatenated. Sometimes new words can be made by concatenating two existing words—for example, “airline” is a concatenation of the words “air” and “line” into a new word. 8． Meaning shift 【答案】 Meaning shift: In a narrow sense, meaning shift is used to refer to the change of meaning that has nothing to do with generalization or restriction such as broadening or narrowing of meaning. 9． Componential analysis 【答案】 It refers to a semantic approach which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. 10．Relational opposites 【答案】 This is a type of antonymy, in which the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. For example, “buy/sell” is such a pair. X buys something from Y means Y sells something from X. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．Please disambiguate the following 5 sentences, using the tree-diagram, or any other means that you think is appropriate. （1）Jane showed her baby pictures. （2）The old man is drinking in the air. （3）We need more realistic officials to handle the economy. （4）We are sweeping the ground cigarettes on the street. （5）Tom exchanged the money and fell around the corner. 【答案】（1） 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 12 页，共 43 页 12．How are affixes classified? 【答案】 Considering the free and bound morpheme, affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme, so it is naturally bound. Depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word, affixes are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix. For examples, “para-” as prefix， “-tion” as suffix, and “-bloomingly-” in word “abso-bloomingly-luty” as infix. Affix can also be classified depending on the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes. The former often only add a minute grammatical function to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to; while the latter are very productive in making new words and often change the lexical meaning. For instances, “-s” in words “toys”，“walks” and “John‟s” is inflectional affixes, while “-tion” is a derivational affix in word “recitation”. 13．What is the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes? 【答案】 The distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes could be illustrated in the following four aspects. Inflectional affixes very often only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem, for instance, those inflectional affixes in words such as toys, walks, John's, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning, e.g. cite, citation; generate, generation. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to，such as flower,flowers; whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. Very often inflectional affixes are conditioned by non-semantic linguistic factors outside the word 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 13 页，共 43 页 they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. Whereas, derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. 14．What are the criteria used in phonetic description of vowels? 【答案】 As the vowels can not be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. The cardinal vowels are abstract concept. The cardinal vowel diagram is a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points. The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements: （1） the height of tongue raising（high, middle or low） ;（2） the position of the highest part of the tongue （front, central, back） ;（3） the length or tenseness of the vowel （tense vs. lax or long vs. short） ; （4） lip-rounding （rounded vs. unrounded） . For example, [i:]: high, front, tense, unrounded vowel. [u]: high, back, lax, rounded vowel. 15．What is the difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotation? 【答案】 Meaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meanings according to different approaches. Concept is the impression of objects in peopled mind; connotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes, is the implied meaning, similar to implication and implicature; denotation, like sense, is not directly related to objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary, and its connotation is “biped‟‟ „„featherless‟‟ „„rational‟‟ etc. 16．The following is a statement by a Japanese businessman: “You buy in your own language, but you sell in your customer’s language.” How do you understand it? 【答案】 This reflects some features of pidgin which is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it id used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. And also, it reflects the tendency of intercultural communication from the aspect of language. 三、Essay-question 17．In the history of modem linguistic study of language, various schools have been founded.What are they? 【答案】 （1） The traditional grammar school attempt to lay down universally valid rules to show how a language ought to be used. It is prescriptive rather than descriptive. （1）An important outgrowth of descriptive linguistics was a theory known as structuralism developed by American Structuralist School. The influential figure in this school is American linguist Leonard Bloomfield （1887 〜 1949 ） , who was strongly influenced by behaviourism. （2）The Transformational-Generative School is developed by Noam Chomsky in the middle of 1950s with the publication of his book Syntactic Structures. Chomsky was strongly against Bloomfield‟s behaviourist psychology and empiricism and adopted cognitive psychology and rationalism. （3）The Prague School is well-known, for its contribution to phonology and its functional analysis to language. The approach that Prague School linguists use is based on a combined theory between 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 14 页，共 43 页 structuralism and functionalism. The most influential scholar is Trubetzkoy, who distinguished the concepts between the phonetic and phonological analysis of sounds, the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features. （4）The London School was founded by John Firth （1890 〜1960） . Central to his work is his contextual theory of meaning. （5）Influenced by Firth‟s ideas, M.A.K. Halliday distinguished linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behavior. Halliday developed Systemic Linguistics or Functional Grammar which is concerned with language as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that is viewed in isolation. 18．For each of the following pairs of sentences, discuss how the two sentences are different from each other. （1）A. His carelessness I can‟t bear. B. I can‟t bear his carelessness. （2）A. A dagger killed the tourist. B. The tourist was killed with a dagger. （3）A. A hurricane killed eight people. B. Eight people died in a hurricane. 【答案】（1） These two sentences are different in the sense that the thematic structures are different. The theme of a sentence is often the known information, which the sentence is mainly about. Sentence A provides some information about “his carelessness”, since “his carelessness” serves as the theme. Whereas, Sentence B is a statement about “I” and from the remainder of the sentence the recipient could know some information about me. （2）In sentence A，“A dagger” serves as the theme, with which the sentence could be seen as an answer of “What did the dagger do?” In sentence B, “The touris” is treated as the given information, around which the sentence develops; thus, the corresponding question of this sentence as an answer could be “What happened to the tourist?” （3）There are still differences of thematic structures between these two sentences, with the first one about “A hurricane” and the second one about “eight people”. What‟s more, in sentence A, the verb „„kill” emphasizes a direct relationship between the hurricane and the eight people, that is, it is the hurricane that caused the people to die. Whereas, in sentence B, a meaning like above is not entailed. 19．How much does our language influence the way we think? How deeply do language and culture interpenetrate and influence one another? These questions about language have fascinated thinkers throughout the ages. For example, Johann Gottfried Herder and Wilhelm von Humboldt in the German Romantic tradition regarded language as a prisma or grid spread over things in the world so that each language reflects a different worldview. Write a short essay to explain your position on this view. 【答案】 Humans have a unique linguistic system for communication that serves as the primary vehicle for expressing thoughts. Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles that develop along two different routes but overlap in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other. But language is not the only means of expressing thought. As for the relationship between language and the thought, we think that language does not determine the way we think but influence the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the ease with which we perform mental tasks. That is, language may be used to provide new ideas, bring about a change in beliefs and values, solve problems，and keep track of things in memory. For example, a well-developed vocabulary 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 15 页，共 43 页 may well assist us in learning the concepts the lexis covers. We recall things more easily when they correspond to readily available words or phrases. It is certainly easier for us to make a conceptual distinction if it neatly corresponds to a particular lexical item available in our language. When we label our experience with linguistic symbols, our language will influence how we remember and think about those experiences; otherwise the relationship between language and perception, memory or thinking will be greatly reduced. In terms of relationship between language and culture, we can infer that a language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events that represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people‟s attitudes, beliefs， world outlooks, and etc. Language expresses cultural reality. On the other hand, as peopled language uses express their culture represented by its social conventions, norms and social appropriateness, the culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically. Sharing a same community culture, people have acquired common ways of viewing the world through their speech interactions with other members of the same group. Although language and culture are inextricably intertwined, culture is a wider system that completely includes language as a subsystem. The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people‟s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people. Language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. As for the relationship between language and world views, the language system does not necessarily provide specifics of one‟s world view. All humans share a general conceptualizing capacity; Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences according to their respectively different linguistic coding systems for the same objective world. On the one hand, people speaking the same language may have different world views, including political, social, religious, scientific and philosophical views. On the other hand, people speaking different languages may share similar world views on above aspects. Moreover, one language can describe many different worldviews, as is evident in the case of successful translation. According to the theories shown above, we can infer that Johann Gottfried Herder and Wilhelm von Humboldt^ view has both merits and limitations. First, they see clearly that there exists a relationship between language and thoughts. Second, they assume that language influences so much the way people think that people who think in different ways will have different world views. Based on the theoretical views above we think this view is not rational in this aspect. 20．Read the following sentence and illustrate the ideas behind this statement: "'Register is the term used in linguistics to describe the relationship between a particular style of language and its context of use.99 【答案】 The register is what you are speaking at the time, depending on what you are doing and the nature of the activity in which the language is functioning. A register can be defined as a configuration of meanings that are typically associated with a particular situational configuration of field, mode, and tenor. Therefore, a register must also include the expressions, the lexico-grammatical and phonological features, which typically accompany or realize these meanings. Text can be seen as an instance of a register. Register is seen as the linguistic consequence of interacting aspects of context, which Halliday calls “field, tenor, and mode.” Field refers to the topics and actions which language is used to express. Tenor denotes the language users, their relationships to each other, and their purposes. Mode refers to the channel through which communication is carried out. These three contextual variables are intended to help the linguist tie linguistic analysis to the relevant contextual variables. By understanding the semiotic properties of a situation （i.e., the values for field, tenor, and mode） , language users can predict the meanings that are likely to be exchanged and the language likely to be used. And while people are communicating they make predictions by using the values of field, tenor and mode to 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 16 页，共 43 页 understand register and that their assessment facilitates their own participation. 四、Synthesis 21．Over the past two decades, hundreds of new words have rushed into the daily life of Chinese people. Try to collect a bunch of these words, examine the context of their usage, and provide a feasible explanation to their booming. 【答案】 If we compare newspaper articles published recently with those published five years ago, we will catch a big difference in their lexical choice—.there are so many new words and expressions in these new articles. Based on the results of this comparison, we may predict that today5s readers will find it a little bit difficult to understand what future newspapers will carry. Over the past decades, Chinese people have enjoyed a much more colorful life, materially and spiritually. The rapid development in science, technology, economics, culture, and education has brought in our daily communication thousands and thousands of new words. Words such as 短信，动漫，网游，按揭，干 细胞，海选（in an election），海面（in a job interview），which used to sound so professional，have now become part of our active vocabulary and are used frequently in our speech. Facing a situation like this, you may ask this question: Where do these new words and expressions come from? It is not an easy job to tell a complete story of these words. If you look at the question from a sociolinguistic point of view, you may claim that language changes with society, Words are the most active, sensible, and changeable component of language. Following this line of reasoning, we may conclude that, as society changes, the vocabulary of our language will become richer, more colorful and expressive in the days to come. 22．In the pairs of sentences that follow, indicate with ''N59 those that need not follow a particular order when they are joined by “and”. Indicate with “Y” those that need to be ordered. Aside from the examples below, in your opinion, which type is more relevant. （a）The sun is shining.（b）Susie went to sleep. The wind is blowing.She had a dream. （c）John came in.（d）He came in. He closed the door.John closed the door. （e）She felt embarrassed.（f）The sky is blue. She blushed.The grass is green. （g）He walked away.（h）He enjoyed the meal. He got up.He loved the pickles. 【答案】（a） N （b） Y （c） Y （d） Y （e） Y （f） N （g） Y （h） N 23．It has been widely recognized that the so-called “magic words” like “thank you” and “please” are more frequently used in an English speaking society than they will in a Chinese speaking society. One of explanations for this phenomenon may go like this: Look, these foreigners are really more polite than our countrymen. Try to use your knowledge in sociolinguistics and make some comments on this understanding of cultural differences. 【答案】 Basically speaking, the above explanation is not a correct one. As we all know, people from different cultural backgrounds speak differently. A maxim we should keep in mind is that one culture‟s meat can be another culture‟s poison. Take the quoted example again. English people and Chinese people have their distinctive ways to express politeness. In most cases, expressions like “thank 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 17 页，共 43 页 you” and “please” are used as a lip service （口惠）in English，not really meaning that the speaker owes you something. On the other hand, a friendly smile or a slight nodding will be a more common practice in Chinese culture to express politeness. If we are not aware of this subtle difference, new cultural misunderstanding will come into being. For instance, you may either feel that English speakers are so polite for trivial things that they appear false and less sincere （虚情假意，）or consider that Chinese speakers are so rude that they never know how to speak politely. 24．Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances. [The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes some popcorn.] Father: 1 thought you were practicing your violin. Daughter: I need to get the [-violin] stand. Father: Is it under the popcorn? 【答案】 The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin” is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter‟s answer is a defence for herslf-I‟m going to do that. And that of the father‟s retort is a denial of the daughter‟s excuse. 25．Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics? 【答案】 Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the nature of language, but also helps them better understand how to teach language. Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Language teachers do need a theory （maybe theories ） of language in order to teach language effectively, and they need to know at least how the language they teach works. To discover the real language and to obtain some understanding of it, language teachers may well turn to linguistics. Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. Therefore, linguistics has always played an important role in the studies of language acquisition and learning. 26．Determine the original term from which the following words were back- formed. （a）asset （b）burgle （c）enthuse （d）greed （e）hush （ f ）automate （g）donate （h）escalate （i）homesick （j）peddle （k）diagnose （I）tuit （ m ）amusing （n） loaf （o） self-destruct （p）attrit （q）hairdress （r）emote （s）drowse （t） frivol 【答案】（a） assets （b）burglar （c）enthusiasm （d）greedy （e）husht （f）automation （g）donation （h）escalator （i）homesickness （j）peddler （k）diagnosis （1） intuition （m） amuse （n）loafer （o）self-destruction （p） attrition （q）hairdresser （r ） emotion （s） drowsy （t） frivolous 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 18 页，共 43 页 27．What is a structural syllabus? 【答案】 Influenced by structuralist linguistics, tile structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures. The vocabulary and grammatical rules included in the teaching materials are carefully ordered according to factors such as frequency, complexity and usefulness. The syllabus input is selected and graded according to grammatical notions of simplicity and complexity. These syllabuses introduce one item at a time and require mastery of that item before moving on to the next. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 19 页，共 43 页 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之 语言学教程考研冲刺五套模拟题（三） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Category 【答案】 Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 2． constituent 【答案】 Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S （A） , the boy （B） , ate the apple （C） , each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B （the boy） and C （ ate the apple） , are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A （“S”，here a sentence） , then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A. 3． Gradable antonym 【答案】 Gradable antonym. Gradable antonyms are antonyms that are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. For example, cold and warm constitute a pair of gradable antonyms. 4． Foregrounding 【答案】 This term is meant for what is unusual, attractive, unconventional, salient. In literature, foregrounding is often achieved through unconventional expressions which attract the readers9 attention. The main manifestations of foregrounding are deviation and parallelism. 5． Stylistics 【答案】 Stylistics is a branch of linguistics studies the features of situationally distinctive uses （varieties ） of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language. 6． Presupposition 【答案】 A presupposition is a proposition （expressed in a sentence） that is assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence. For example, John didn't pass chemistry presupposes that John took chemistry. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 20 页，共 43 页 7． Distinctive features of speech sounds 【答案】 The distinctive feature is a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. For example, “voicing” is a distinctive feature, since it plays an important role in distinguishing obstruents in English. 8． Linguistic determinism 【答案】 Linguistic determinism, is one of the two points of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and has developed into the strong version of this hypothesis. It could be summarized as follows: （1） One‟s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one cannot but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language. （2） The categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommensurable with those of other systems. Therefore, the following statement could represent this hypothesis 4tIf Aristotle had spoken Chinese, his logic would have been different”. 9． Displacement 【答案】 Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example, we can talk about Sapir, who is already dead; we can even talk about next week, which is in the future. 10．stream of consciousness writing 【答案】 The term was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his Principle of Psychology （1890） to describe the free association of ideas and impressions in the mind. It was later applied to the writing of William Faulkner, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and others experimenting early in the 20th century with the novelistic portrayal of the free flow of thought. Note, however, that the majority of thought presentation in novels is not stream of consciousness writing. The examples we have discussed above are not stream of consciousness writing because they are too orderly to constitute the free association of ideas. Perhaps the most famous piece of stream of consciousness writing is that associated with Leopold Bloom in Joyce‟s Ulysses. Here he is in a restaurant thinking about oysters. “Filthy shells. Devil to open them too. Who found them out? Garbage, sewage they feed on. Fizz and Red bank oysters. Effect on the sexual. Aphrodis. （sic） He was in the Red bank this morning. Was he oyster old fish at table. Perhaps he young flesh in bed. No. June has no ar （sic） no oysters. But there are people like tainted game. Jugged hare. First catch your hare. Chinese eating eggs fifty years old, blue and green again. Dinner of thirty courses. Each dish harmless might mix inside. Idea for a poison mystery.66 This cognitive meandering is all in the most free version of direct thought. It is also characterised by a highly elliptical sentence structure, with as many grammatical words as possible being removed consistently allowing the reader to be able to infer what is going on. The language is not very cohesive，and breaks the Gricean maxims of Quantity and Manner. But we must assume that apparently unreasonable writing behaviour is related to a relevant authorial purpose. It is the assumption that Joyce is really cooperating with us at a deeper level, even though he is apparently making our reading difficult, that leads us to conclude that he is trying to evoke a mind working associatively. 二、Short-answer-questions 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 21 页，共 43 页 11．Why do we say language is primarily vocal? 【答案】 Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is primarily vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or 6'new,5. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak （and listen ） before they write （and read） also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 12．cinched 18. played 19. hated 20. branded 【答案】 appears after these sounds: is found after and occurs afteri The general factor to determine whether , or is used is the distinctive feature of voicing. Therefore, occurs after a voiceless sound, except occurs after a voiced sound, except and occurs after either the consonant or 13．How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds? 【答案】 Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view. First, it studies the sounds from the speaker‟s point of view, i.e.，how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Then, it looks at the sounds from the hearer s point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. Lastly, it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively. 14．How well, in your opinion, does the word “communication” represent the function of human language? 【答案】 We use language for an almost infinite number of purposes, from writing letters to gossiping with our friends, making speeches and talking to ourselves in the mirror. But the primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. The term “communication” can be used to cover much of the function of language. This function can be further divided into more specific functions, such as phatic function/communion, directive function, informative function, interrogative function, expressive function, evocative function, performative function etc. 15．Cite an example to explain synchronic linguistics. 【答案】 Synchronic Linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time in history. It focuses on the characteristics of the language at a certain time. For example, when we study English, we learn about the vocabulary, the language points and oral English etc. At this time, we are learning English of current time in synchronic method. 16．What is a syntactic category? 【答案】 A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in a language which share a significant number of common characteristics. The classification is based on similar structure and sameness of distribution （the structural relationships between these elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure） , and not on meaning. There are major and minor syntactic categories: major 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 22 页，共 43 页 categories include all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V; while minor categories are categories that do not project to a phrasal level such as the Yes-No question markers. More specifically, a syntactic category also refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender and case; and the categories of the verb, for example, include tense, aspect and voice, etc. 三、Essay-question 17．Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife. 【答案】 Child-kid can be categorized under synonymy, alive-dead complementary antonymy, old-young gradable antonymy, and husband-wife converse antonymy. Synonymy is the technical term for the sameness relation. The members of a pair of complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. They divide up the whole of a semantic field completely, which means not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, and the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. Pairs of words of gradable antonymy have three characteristics:（1） they are gradable—the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. As such, they can be modified by “very”. And they may have comparative and superlative degrees. （2） Antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms. The criterion varies with the object described.（3）One member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term. Converse antonymy shows the reversal of a relationship between two entities. It is the same relationship seen from two different angles, and there is always two entities involved, which makes the major difference between this type and the above two types of antonymy. 18．In informal speech, people often omit sentence subjects because they are commonly understood. What are the omitted subjects in the following two sentences? Why do people know that these are the correct subjects? a.Hope you like everything here. b.Just imagine what has just happened here. 【答案】 The omitted subject in sentence a is “I” and the omitted subject in sentence b is usually “You”. This is a matter of sentence comprehension in language comprehension. Psycholinguists have proposed principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints. The most popular principle is “Minimal attachment” which defines “structurally simpler”，and it claims that structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. In this view, the sentence processor constructs a single analysis of a sentence and attempts to interpret it. The first analysis is the one that requires the fewest applications of grammatical rules to attach each incoming word into the structure being built; it is the automatic consequence of an effort to get some analysis constructed as soon as possible. In the first sentence, when “hope” as a verb is used to express the speaker‟s desire and expectation for something to happen, it conveys the will of the speaker. So, the subject of “hope” is usually the speaker her/himself and can be omitted when the two are talking to each other. When the speaker is making a statement and using “hope” to express other‟s will, the subject will not be omitted. Therefore, according to “minimal attachment” principle, when the hearer interprets this sentence, they automatically interpret “I”—the speaker, as the subject of “hope”. Sentence b can be said to be an imperative sentence which is a sentence that gives advice or instructions or that expresses a request or a command. This instruction or request is always aimed to the hearer or the reader, so the subject of an 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 23 页，共 43 页 imperative is always “you”. When the hearer interpret this sentence, he/she will interpret the verb “imagine”, as a request or advice through which the speaker tries to make he/she involved in this action, so it is easier for he/she to consider “you” as the subject. Context is another important factor for people to understand the subjects. The subjects will be more clear in particular context although they are omitted. 19．Imagine you were at a bus stop and two people approached you one after the other. The first said: “哎，几点了？” and the second said: “丌好意思，打搅一下，请问您戴表了吗？” What assumptions would you make if you were addressed in these two ways and why would you make them? 【答案】 As to the first one, an immediate assumption coming to our mind would be the person is asking for the time. The assumption that the hearer gets arises out of the conventional meaning of the expression. The conventional meaning is related to the existing knowledge of the world, and is the meaning that is achieved by the conventions, and is generally accepted by the society. It can be accessed to when we turn to the knowledge towards the world that we have. The expression “几点了” is such a conventional meaning that when it is spoken out，everyone will unexceptionally accept it as a way of asking for the time. As to the explanation of the second one, Levinson‟s M-principle could come into use. Considering the context， which is in the bus stop, what it expresses is no longer a conventional one, but rather a conversational implicature. According to M-principle, the speaker normally will not use a prolix, obscure sentence. It is the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and to whom. 20．What is the relationship between speech event and speech act? （Explain with an example）. 【答案】 Speech act refers to an utterance as a functional unit in communication. There are many kinds of speech acts, such as requests, orders, commands, complaints, and promises. A speech act that is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act. Speech event refers to a particular instance when people exchange speech, e.g. an exchange of greetings, an enquiry, a conversation. Speech events are governed by the rules and norms for the use of speech, which may be different in different communities. The structure of speech events varies considerably according to the genre they belong to. Both speech act and speech event are concerned about the actual utterance of sentences. But speech act deals with a particular utteranceh that has locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. Speech event is related to certain speech situations that are composed of many utterances, though may be not speech act. For example, when you ask for the time at a bus stop with the sentence, “What time is it?” your meaning is that you want to know the time. This speech act takes place within a speech event, which could be called asking for the time. Such an event is very brief and usually has three speech acts: asking the time, giving the time, and thinking. Speech events usually take place within the larger context of speech situations. Based on the differences between speech act and speech event, the former is usually studied in pragmatics while the latter is the focus of socio-linguistics. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 24 页，共 43 页 四、Synthesis 21．For each of the underlined construction or word groups ,do the following. —State whether it is headed or non-hesded. —If headed,state its headword. —Name the type of constructions. Ex.His son will be keenly competing. Answer:headed,headword—competing. （a）Ducks quack. （b）The ladder in the shed is long enough. （c）I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair. （d）Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries. （e）His handsome face appeared in the magazine. A lady of great beauty came out. （g）He enjoys climbing high mountains. （h）The man nodded patiently. （i）A man roused by the insult drew his sword. 【答案】（a）（non-headed, independent clause） （b）（non-head, prepositional phrase） （c）（headed; headword—damaged; adjectival group） （d）（headed; headword—singing; gerundial phrase） （e）（headed; headword—face; nominal group） （f）（non-headed; prepositional phrase） （g）（.headed; headword—climbing; gerundial phrase） （h）（non-headed; independent clause） （i）（headed; headword—roused; adjectival phrase） 22．Classify the following words as loanwords （LW） , Ioanblends （LB） , Ioanshifts （LS） or loan translation （LT）. booby trap coconut loan-word monk firewater free verse war paint yankee 【答案】 LW: monk; loan-word LB: booby trap; coconut LS: Yankee LT: firewater; free verse; war paint 23．If there are two affixes -ly, one producing adjectives and the other attaching to adjectives to produce adverbs, can we find words with both of these affixes? 【答案】 No. Words with both of these affixes -ly are not allocated in English. See below: 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 25 页，共 43 页 24．Identify the type of trope employed in the following examples. 1）The boy was as cunning as a fox. 2）...the innocent sleep the death of each day‟s life,... （Shakespeare） 3）Buckingham Palace has already been told the train may be axed when the rail network has been privatised. （Daily Mirror, 2 February 1993） 4）Ted Dexter confessed last night that England are in a right old spin as to how they can beat India this winter. （Daily Mirror, 2 February 1993） 【答案】 1） simile 2） metaphor 3） metonymy 4） synecdoche 25．Define the following terms. （1）conceptual meaning （2）denotation （3）connotation （4）reference （5）sense （6） synonoymy （7）gradable antonymy （8）complementary antonomy （9）converse antonymy （10） relational opposites （11）hyponymy （12）superordinate （13）semantic components （14） compositionality （15）propositional logic （16）proposition （17）predicate logic （18）logical connective 【答案】（1）This is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech also uses “sense” as a briefer term for his conceptual meaning. As a result, Leech‟s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference. （2）In the philosophers 6 usage, denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary. （3）In the philosophers5 usage, connotation, opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the connotation ofis “biped”，„„featherless‟‟，“rational”，etc. （4） Reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to. （5） In contrast to reference, sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations. （6）Synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation. （7） Gradable antonomy is the sense relation between two antonyms which differ in terms of degree. There is an intermediate ground between the two. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. Something which is not “good” is not necessarily “bad”. It may simply be “so-so” or “average”, （ 8）Complementary antonomy is the sense relation between two antonyms which are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. Not only He is alive means C4He is not dead?” He is not alive also means t4He is dead （9）Converse antonymy is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 26 页，共 43 页 constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. X/ram y means the same as Y sells something to X. X is the parent of Y means the same as Y is the child of X. It is the same relationship seen from two different angles. （10） This is another name for converse antonyms. As converse antonymy is typically seen in reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations, these antonyms are also known as relational opposites. （11）Hyponymy, the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership. For example, the meaning of desk is included in that of furniture, and the meaning of rose is included in that of flower. （12）The upper term in hyponymy, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate, and the lower terms, the members, hyponyms. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. Under flower, for example, there are peony, jasmine, chrysanthemum, tulip, violet, carnation and many others apart from rose. （13）Semantic components, or semantic features, are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analysed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. （14） Compositionality refers to the principle that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. （15） Propositional logic, also known as propositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions : how the truth of a 'composite9 proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them. （16）A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement. （17） Predicate logic, also called predicate calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions. In this logical system, propositions like Socrates is a man will be analyzed into two parts: argument and predicate. An argument is a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made. And a predicate is a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred to. In the proposition Socrates is a man, therefore, Socrates is the argument and man is the predicate. （18）A logical connective is a logical element which helps to construct a composite proposition on the basis of simple proposition （s）.There are 5 usual logical connectives: the negative connective～， the conjunctive &, the disjunctive connective V, the implicational （or conditional） connective→and the equivalent （ or biconditonal） connective≡. 26．Analyze the following paragraph by image schemas. You wake out of a deep sleep and peer out from beneath the covers into your room. You gradually emerge out of your stupor, pull yourself out from under the covers, climb into your robe, stretch out your limbs, and walk in a daze out of the bedroom and into the bathroom. You look in the mirror and see your face staring out at you. You reach into the medicine cabinet, take out the toothpaste, squeeze out some toothpaste, put the toothbrush into your mouth, brush your teeth in a hurry, and rinse out your mouth. At breakfast you perform a host of further in-out moves—pouring out the coffee, setting out the dishes, putting the toast in the toaster, spreading out the jam on the toast, and on and on. Once you are more awake you might even get lost in the newspaper, might enter into a conversation, which leads to your speaking out on some topic. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 27 页，共 43 页 【答案】 Some of these senses of in and out involve clear-cut physical orientation in space, while others involve more abstract nonspatial relations, such as, walk in a daze, brush your teeth in a hurry, get lost in the newspaper, enter into a conversation, speak out on some topic. However, they all require some activity of establishing relations, either among physical or among abstract entities or events. 27．Analyze the following Relational-process sentences according to their mode and type. （1）Linguistics is a difficult course. （2）This laptop is Professor Huang‟s. 【答案】（1） Type: intensive; Mode: attributive （2） Type: possessive; Mode: identifying 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 28 页，共 43 页 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之 语言学教程考研冲刺五套模拟题（四） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Conceptualism 【答案】 It is the view which holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 2． computational linguistics 【答案】 Computational linguistics is a branch of applied linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language, h includes programmed instruction, speech synthesis and recognition, automatic translation, and computer mediated communication. 3． Compound 【答案】 Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as the compound words “blackboard” and “well-known”. 4． Language acquisition 【答案】 It refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations. 5． phoneme 【答案】 Phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning. For example, in English, is described as a phoneme. 6． Subordinate construction 【答案】 Subordinate constructions are one of the two subtypes of endocentric constructions. Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent, are subordinate constructions. 7． Functional Sentence Perspective （FSP） 【答案】 It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to art analysis of utterances （or texts） in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 29 页，共 43 页 8． Allomorph 【答案】 A morpheme may take various shapes or forms, and an allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, as in “cats” /s/, in “bags” /z/，in “matches” /iz/. 9． Bound morpheme 【答案】 Bound morphemes refer to those morphemes that can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morpheme. For example, in the word “careless”，“-less” is a bound morpheme since it could not occur by itself as a word. 10．Contrastive analysis 【答案】 Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．What are the differences between simile and metaphor? 【答案】 Simile is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing ,and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like. For example, the phrase as cold as ice is a common simile. Although metaphor also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, this comparison is implied rather than stated. That is, it differs from simile in that the words such as like or as do not appear. For example, uThe life is a stage” is a metaphor. 12．How would you describe this short exchange in terms of the actions performed by the speakers? Carol: Are you coming to the party tonight? Lara: I've got an exam tomorrow. 【答案】 In this short exchange, obviously Lara breaks the maxim of relation of CP by talking about something totally irrelevant with CaroFs question. However, we can understand her meaning perfectly. Lara is conveying an indirect meaning by giving out an utterance containing a conversational implicative. Her aim is to refuse Carol‟s invitation in a polite and less harsh manner. 13．What makes language unique to human beings? 【答案】 The design features of language which refer to the defining properties of human language tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.Arbitrariness is a core feature of language, which means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Duality, which means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic unites to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never heard before. Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters, in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. So all these features make language unique to human beings. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 30 页，共 43 页 14．What are the three kinds of antonyms? 【答案】 The three kinds of antonyms are gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and converse antonyms. Gradable antonyms refer to antonyms that differ in terms of degree. For example, good and bad. Complementary antonyms are a pair of antonyms complementary to each other: not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other; the denial of one also means the assertion of the other, such as male and female. Converse antonyms do not constitute a positive-negative opposition; they only show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, such as husband and wife. 15．crushed 2. heaped 3. kicked 4. pitted 【答案】 16．Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is the difference between the two? 【答案】 The difference between internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. （1） The internal focus seeks to account for speakers9 internalized, underlying knowledge of language. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners production at different stages of development. （2）According to the above difference, the linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. Originally Chomsky referred to this innate ability as Language Acquisition Device，also known as LAD. Later Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as Universal Grammar （UG） and holds that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning. The interaetionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interaetionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child‟s capability is crucial in his language acquisition. 三、Essay-question 17．Consider the following sentence, and then, answer questions （1） to （3） . The boy saw the man with the telescope. （1）Is this sentence ambiguous? If so, describe the ambiguity briefly in your own words. （2）Draw the constituent structure trees for each possible interpretation. （3）What can be known about tree diagrams from （1） and （2） ? 【答案】（1） Yes, this is an ambiguous sentence. This is a structurally ambiguous sentence, which can be rewritten in two ways as follows: a.The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope. b.Using the telescope, the boy saw the man. （2） Since the sentence is an ambiguous one, which has two ways of interpretation, there are two ways of drawing constituent structure trees for it. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 31 页，共 43 页 （3） Tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis. In addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently, can truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 18．In what way are language and computer related, and how has their relationship affected language learning? 【答案】 With the development of the computer technology and internet system, more and more people touched upon the computer field. Computer has been used in the classroom for foreign language teaching and learning. CAI stands for computer-assisted instruction, which means the use of a computer in a teaching program. CAL stands for computer-assisted learning, which means the use of computer in both teaching and learning. Following CAI and CAL, CALL, acronym for Computer Assisted Language Learning, refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. If CAI or CAL deals with teaching and learning in general, then CALL deals with language teaching and learning in particular. CALL provided a beneficial and convenient approach for language learners to improve their ability. For example, students can gain a quick access to any materials on the internet. The computer is not an individual resource for each student any more, instead, it is a trigger for interaction between the students and it is the focus for group work which allows some activities, such as the activity role-play interaction. The use of multimedia technology enables different information types to be simultaneously available on the computer, as a result, spoken language and moving video are produced other than mere presentation of written sentences. 19．What kind of linguistic phenomenon can you identify in the following dialogue? Define, analize and explain the phenomenon. 甲：上车请买票。 乙：三张天安门。 甲：您拿好。 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 32 页，共 43 页 【答案】 This conversation consists of the linguistic phenomenon which is called the “Cooperative Principle”，proposed and formulated by P. Grice, based on such a pragmatic hypothesis that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible to carry on talk. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle: The maxim of quantity a）Make your contribution as informative as is required （for the current purpose of the exchange）. b）Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of quality a）Do not say what you believe to be false. b）Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. The maxim of relation Be relevant. The maxim of manner a）Avoid obscurity of expression. b）Avoid ambiguity. c）Be brief （avoid unnecessary prolixity） • d）Be orderly. There are circumstances where speakers may not follow the maxims of the cooperative principle. For example, in this conversation, the speaker may violate the maxim expectations by using an expression like “ 三张天安门” in response to a question. Although it is typically “more informative than is required” in the context, it is naturally interpreted as communicating more than is said （i.e. the speaker knows the answer）. This typical reaction （i. e. there must be something “special” here） of listeners to any apparent violation of the maxims is actually the key to the notion of conversational implicature. When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect. In this way, we can convey more than is literally said. 20．Read the following quote from Chomsky. What do you think about Chomsky^ criticism and the revival of corpus linguistics? It seems clear that the description which is of greatest psychological relevance is the account of competence, not that of performance, for anyone concerned with intellectual processes, or any question that goes beyond mere data arranging, it is the question of competence that is fundamental. ... These rather obvious comments apply directly to study of language, child or adult. This it is absurd to attempt to construct a grammar that describes observed linguistic behaviour directly，…a direct record—an actual corpus—is almost useless as it stands, for linguistic analysis of any but the most superficial kind. ... 【答案】 Regarding linguistics as a branch of psychology, Chomsky insisted that what should be studied is linguistic competence, not performance. As he has claimed, the description of language performance only tells what is there, and is very inadequate in telling why language performs in the way as it does, or rather, how the intellectual processes affects it. What＇s more, language performance is more than often degenerated; there are false statements, 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 33 页，共 43 页 hesitations, and so on. Therefore, the corpus linguistics which is based on the language performance is somewhat distorted from the goal of linguistics. Because, according to Chomsky, what linguistics is aimed for, should be the discovering of the constants, the general principle which all languages are constructed and operated as systems of communication in societies in which they are used. Therefore, he suggested the construction of universal grammar, which is the ideal knowledge of language, is what linguists should be concerned with, and the postulation of grammar based on the observed behavior is also a distortion. 四、Synthesis 21．Draw a tree diagram for each of the following sentences. （1）The police attacked the suspect. （2）These children cannot understand her painting. 【答案】 22．What is a corpus? Can you give some examples of how the use of a corpus contributes to language teaching? 【答案】 Corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for material developers to select authentic, natural and typical language, The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts selected. Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus decide the number and type of texts in a corpus. Corpora usually provide the following types of information. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 34 页，共 43 页 （1）Frequency information. Corpora can tell us how frequently certain language items or structures are used. This kind of information is useful when we try to select what to teach, select what to focus on, and decide what senses to focus on in the language classroom. （2）Context and co-text information. Contexts are the situational environments in which language is used. Co-texts are the linguistic environments. Sometimes it is very difficult to tell the differences of two words or phrases which have similar meaning. However, if we look at the context and co text in which they are used, the difference becomes clear. （3）Grammatical information. We usually refer to grammar books for grammatical information. However, what the corpora show is far more complicated than what grammar books tell about grammar. For example, information from corpora has shown that conditionals in English are far more than 3 （first, second and third conditionals）. （4）Collocation and phraseology information. It is usually difficult for second and foreign language learners to learn which words are frequently used together, e.g. should we say make effort or take ejfortl A search in corpus will do the job. （5）Pragmatics information. Information from corpora can tell us how language is actually used in communication. For example, students are often told that if someone says “How do you do?”，they should say “How do you do‟？”. Data from corpora show that in this situation there is more than one way to response. For example，we can also say “Nice to meet you. ” 23．What are the most important tasks for a syllabus designer? 【答案】 The process of syllabus design in foreign language teaching mainly includes selecting and grading what is to be taught. A process of selection must be undertaken since learning the whole system of a foreign language is neither possible nor necessary. Selection involves two sub processes: First, the restriction of the language to a particular dialect and register; and second, the selection from within the register of the items that are to be taught according to criteria such as frequency of occurrence， leamability and classroom needs. The whole process of selection must be applied at all levels of language, such as phonology, grammar, lexis, contexts （semantic and cultural,） . After a list of language items have been selected, the next process is to put them into the most appropriate order for practical teaching purposes. This process is often referred to as grading or sequencing. 24．The structural syllabus is often criticised. Do you think it has some merits as well? 【答案】 The major drawback of such a syllabus is that it concentrates only on the grammatical forms and the meaning of individual words，whereas the meaning of the whole sentence is thought to be self-evident，whatever its context may be. Students are not taught how to use these sentences appropriately in real situations. As a result, students trained by a structural syllabus often prove to be communicatively incompetent. However, the structural syllabus also have some merits. For example, many students feel comfortable when learning a language through learning its grammar. In many contexts, both teachers and students expect to see grammar in the syllabus and teaching materials. Besides, the system of grammar provides a convenient guidance for syllabus design. 25．Find the sources of the following blends. In cases where the dictionary does not provide the answer, your own ingenuity will be your guide. （a） bash （b） smash （c） glimmer （d） flimmer 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 35 页，共 43 页 （e） clash （f） flare （g） brunch （h） motel （i） transistor （j） medicare （k） workaholic （1） spam （m） telethon （n） aerobicise （o） chunnel （p） chortle （q） bit （r） modem （s） guestimate （t） threepeat 【答案】（a）bat and mash （b）smack and mash （c）gleam and shimmer （d）flame and glimmer （e）clap and crash （f）flame and glare （g）breakfast and lunch （h）motor and hotel （i）transfer and resistor （j）medical and care （k）work and alcoholic （1）spiced and ham （m） telephone and marathon （n） aerobics and exercise （o） channel and tunnel （p） chuckle and snort （q） binary and digit （r） modulator and demodulator （s） guess and estimate （ t ） three and repeat 26．What are the main features el Stratificational Grammar? 【答案】 Lamb‟s Stratificational Grammar consists of three levels: phoneme, morpheme, and morphophoneme. It sees the complex relationship in language as series of connected strata systems on t.he assumption that while the system of relationships are not directly observable, it is generalizable. In this grammar, there is no direct relation between a concept and its sounds, and that there are various strata that make up a number of strata systems. Among these, the four principal ones are the sememic, lexemic, morphemic, and the phonemic, from top to bottom. 27．Do the following according the requirements. （a）Write out the synonyms of the following words: youth; automobilev; remember; purchaser vacation; big （b）Give the antonyms of the following words, and point out in which aspect the two of each pair are opposite: dark, boy, hot, go （c）Provide two or more related meanings for the following： bright, to glare, a deposit, plane 【答案】 （a） youth （adolescent） ; automobile （ear） ; remember （recall） ; purchase （buy） ; vacation （holidays）; big （large） （b） dark （light: with respect to brightness） boy （girl: with respect to sex） hot （cold: with respect to temperature） go （come: with respect to direction） （c）bright （a. shining; b. intelligent） to glare （a. to shine intensely; b. to stare angrily） a deposit （a. minerals in the earth; b. money in the bank） plane （a. a flying vehicle; b. a flat surface） 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 36 页，共 43 页 2019 年郑州大学外语学院 855 专业英语(英美文学、翻译理论与实践、英语语言学)之 语言学教程考研冲刺五套模拟题（五） 特别说明： 1-本资料为 2019 考研冲刺点题班学员考研冲刺模拟题，查漏补缺，实战检测考研复习效果。 2-仅供 2019 考研复习参考，与目标学校及研究生院官方无关，如有侵权、请联系我们立即处理。 ———————————————————————————————————————— 一、Explain-the-fllowing-terms 1． Open-class words 【答案】 Open-class words refer to words whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited and with the emergence of new ideas, inventions, and so on; new expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. For example, nouns, verbs, and adjectives all belong to this class. 2． Lexical relations 【答案】 There are several types of lexical relations concerning the sense of the words. Those are synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy, homonymy, and so on. （a） Synonymy refers to the sameness relation; “autum”, and “full” are synonyms, for example, （b） Antonymy refers to the oppositeness relation; for example, “buy” and “sell” are antonyms, （c） Hyponymy refers to the inclusiveness relation; for example, “apple” is a hyponym of “fruit”, （d） Polysemy means one word that has more than one related meaning，and “bank”，as an example, is a polysemous word. （e） Homonymy refers to the relation of two different words which are identical either in sound, or spelling, or both, such as “bow” （bau） and “bow” （bəu）. 3． CALL 【答案】 It is the abbreviation of computer-assisted language learning, which refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language. In this kind of CALL programs, the computer leads the student through a learning task step-by-step, asking question to check comprehension. Depending on the student^ response, the computer gives the student further practice or progresses to new material. 4． Idiolect 【答案】 Just as every speech community has a dialect, every speaker has his own pet words and expressions and special way of expressing his ideas in language. This language variety of individual users is called “idiolect” 5． Government 【答案】 Government is another type of control over the forms of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the forms of others in terms of certain category. In English, for example, the pronoun after a verb or a preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him a book. She gave a 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 37 页，共 43 页 book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, determines, or governs, the form of the pronoun after it. 6． Categorization 【答案】 Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories: the basic level，the superordinate level，and the subordinate level. 7． Prefix 【答案】 In linguistics, a prefix is a type of affix that precedes the morphemes to which it can attach. Prefixes are bound morphemes （they cannot occur as independent words ） . While most languages employ both prefixes and suffixes, prefixes are less common. Some languages employ mostly suffixes and almost no prefixes at all. The use of prefixes has been found to correlate statistically with other linguistic features, such as a verb-object word order and the use of prepositions. 8． Homonymy 【答案】 In any language there are words which have the same linguistic form but are different in meaning. These words are called homonyms. For example, bank （of a river） , and bank （financial institution）. 9． Surface structure 【答案】 It is a term used in generative grammar to refer to the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear. For instance, “John is easy to please.” and “John is eager to please.” are two sentences with the same surface structure. 10．Broad and narrow transcription 【答案】 Broad and narrow transcription: In broad transcription, one letter symbol is used for one sound. In narrow transcription, there are diacritics added to the one letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds. 二、Short-answer-questions 11．What is the cognitive interpretation of image schema? 【答案】 Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. Image schema exists at a level of abstraction, operates at a level of mental organization between propositional structures and concrete image, and it can be subdivided into the following items: a center-periphery schema, a continent schema，a cycle schema，a force schema，a link schema，a part-whole schema，a path schema，a scale schema and a vertical schema. 12．What are vowels glide about? What differentiates pure or monophthong vowel from vowel glides? 【答案】 When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, the quality remains constant throughout 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 38 页，共 43 页 the articulatioin. In contrast, those where there is an audible change of quality are called vowel glides. Vowel glides are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. If a single movement of the tongue is involved, the glides are called diphthongs. A double movement produces triphthongs. 13．Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 【答案】 As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communication functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in England accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and considered more correct than without it. 14．What is assimilation? Is it similar to coarticulation? What dose it include? 【答案】 Assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound. It is often used synonymously with coarticulation. Nasalization, dentalization and velarization are all instances of assimilation. There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation. 15．What is reference? 【答案】 Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between linguistic elements and non-linguistic world of experience. Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a word or phrase and an entity in the external world. For example, the word tree refers to the object “tree”. Reference in its narrower sense is the relationship between a word or phrase and a specific object, e.g. a particular tree or a particular animal. For example, Peter's horse would refer to a horse which is owned, ridden by, or in some way associated with Peter. 16．How are the vowels described usually? 【答案】 Usually, the description of the vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements: （1）The height of tongue raising （high, mid, low）; （2）The position of the highest part of the tongue （front, central, back）; （3）The length or tenseness of the vowel （tense vs. lax or long vs. short） , and （4）lip-rounding （rounded vs. unrounded）. 三、Essay-question 17．Is it possible to separate semantics and pragmatics? Why or why not? What are the implications of your answer for second language teaching? 【答案】 Though both semantics and pragmatics have to do with the meaning of language, and link language to the world, we think it is possible to separate semantics and pragmatics in linguistic study. Semantics is the study of literal meaning of linguistic expressions, particularly meaning of words, 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 39 页，共 43 页 phrases and sentences. In using the term sense rather than reference, the focus of semantics is on the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language. Pragmatics starts from the observation that people use language to accomplish many kinds of acts, broadly known as speech acts thus it is the study of how to do things with words or of the meaning of language in context. This kind of meaning in pragmatics usually refers to as speaker‟s meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning. Its interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. Thus the distinction between semantics and pragmatics is clear: the former is more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meanings; the latter is more closely related to the context, the more indeterminate side, or something extra. The first implication for second language study involves the appropriate use of the target language. The teaching of a foreign language in a classroom involves two types of instruction: one is informational and analytical and can be diagrammed on the axis of general semantic information about the language. But language learning also has a crucially important skill component, which involves the development of the ability to use the language, actively through speaking and writing and passively through listening and reading. This is the pragmatic turn in second language teaching. The language use should be analyzed in relation to the context of communication, and that language teaching and learning should focus on the appropriate use of the target language, oral and written, according to situational and wider social context. The second implication is concerned with vocabulary learning and translation. The learning of second language‟s vocabularies involves the understanding and memory of their meanings. Since the differences between the first and second language‟s culture, there may be no corresponding meaning underlying the same sayings. Teachers should explain the different usage or implication of the target language‟s items. This is of much importance for cross-cultural translation practices. 18．Advantages and Disadvantages of Immediate Constituent Analysis （IC Analysis）. 【答案】 Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and if there is any ambiguity, it could be revealed. For example, how the sentence “Leave the book on the shelf” is ambiguous could be shown after the IC analysis. However, there are also problems in IC analysis. First, at the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions, that is, any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible. For example, in the phrase “men and women”，it is not appropriate to combine “and” with only the preceding part or only the succeeding part. Second, constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. For example, in “make it up” the phrasal verb “make up” is separated by a pronoun. Third，which is also the most serious problem; there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis, as shown in “the love of God”. In IC analysis，the different relations of “God” to the word “love” cannot be shown which makes the expression ambiguous. 19．Think of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle proposed by P. Grice, and explain the violation of maxims in the cases below. 1）A: Have you seen my watch? B: Look in the drawer. 2）A: Reno s the capital of Nevada. B: Yeah, London s the capital of New Jersey. 3）A: I really liked that dinner. B : Tm a vegetarian. 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 40 页，共 43 页 4）A: Let‟s dine out with the kids this weekend B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s. 【答案】 The four maxims of the Cooperative Principle proposed by P. Grice are the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. In （1） , B violates the maxim of quantity, for his/her not giving enough information to A9s question. B does not answer “yes” or “no” to a yes-no question，so A doesn‟t know whether B is sure it is in the draw. But B says this way may imply he/she is unsure about it （look at the drawer, maybe it is there）, or he/she is sure （just go get it, it is in the drawer）. In （2）, B violates the maxim of quality. Apparently London is not the capital of New Jersey. What B says is a false statement, and B knows it is false. But B says it to imply that A9s statement is also false, that is, Reno is not the capital of Nevada. In （3） , B violates the maxim of relations. B does not talk about “that dinner” directly but with “I‟m a vegetarian instead. Although the two utterances are not relevant superficially, yet what B says may imply that "there is meat in that dinner, and I am a vegetarian, so I don‟t like it.” which makes the conversation coherent. In （4） , B violates the maxim of manners. B may be deliberately obscure by saying in that way so that the children will not be able to understand what they are talking about. 20．What is communicative competence? 【答案】 Communicative competence includes: （1）Knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language; （2）knowledge of rules of speaking （e.g. knowing how to begin and end conversations, knowing what topics may be talked about in different types of speech events, knowing which address forms should be used with different persons one speaks to and in different situations ）; （3）knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations; （4）knowing how to use language appropriately. When someone wishes to communicate with others, they must recognize the social setting, their relationship to the other person （s ） , and the types of language that can be used for a particular occasion. They must also be able to interpret written or spoken sentences within the total context in which they are used, or marked expression without reason; on the hearer‟s side, if the speaker used a prolix or marked expression, he did not mean the same as he would have had he used the unmarked expression. That is to say, in the normal situation, in a bus stop as the example above has shown, the intention of that the speaker asks others whether they wear the watch or not is not merely to care about the recipient has a watch or not, but has some other reason, because it would be bizarre to ask a stranger in the bus stop about such a personal staff. Therefore, the hearer has to assume that the expression is related to the situation, and this expression is not what it literally means. Following this, the hearer reaches a connection between the bus stop and the watch, which is the time. As a consequence, he knows what the speaker intends is the inquiring of the time. 四、Synthesis 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 41 页，共 43 页 21．Basing yourself on the model of componential analysis, analyze the following words teacher, typewriter, chopsticks 【答案】 Teacher: human, knowledgeable, instructive, respectable Typewriter: machine, typewriting Chopsticks: pair, eat, tool 22．What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies? 【答案】 A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To collie to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others,... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. （Noam Chomsky: Reflectionson Language. 1975:4） It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”； and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. （M. A, K, Halliday. 1970: 142） The first quote shows children＇s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user＇s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language. 23．What are the special features of American structuralism? 【答案】 American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that developed in a very different style from that of Europe. While linguistics in Europe started more than two thousand years ago, linguistics in America started at the end of the nineteenth century. While traditional grammar plays a dominating role in Europe, it has little influence in America. While many European languages have their own historical traditions and cultures, English is the dominating language in America，where there is no such a tradition as in Europe. In addition, the pioneer scholars in America were faced with the urgent task of recording the rapidly perishing native American Indian languages because there was no written record of them. However, these languages were characterised by features of vast diversity and differences which are rarely found in other parts of the world. To record and describe these exotic languages, it is probably better not to have any presuppositions about the nature of language in general. This explains why there was not much development in linguistic theory during this period but a lot of discussion on descriptive procedures. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be described without reference to the alleged universality of such categories as tense, mood and parts of speech, 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 42 页，共 43 页 Firstly，structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars. Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognising and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning. Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use. 24．What is special about TG Grammar? 【答案】 The starting point of Chomsky^ TG Grammar is his innateness hypothesis, based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. Chomsky‟s TG Grammar has the following features. First, Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles. Second, Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker^ tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourth，Chomsky‟s methodology is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels: （a） the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languages, and （b） each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology. 25．What is the tradition of the London School? 【答案】 The London School has a tradition of laying stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have made this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics. It is an important and admirable part of the London School tradition to believe that different types of linguistic description may be appropriate for different purposes. 26．Analyze the following sentences by identifying the Subject and Predicate on the first level end Theme and Rheme on the second level. （1）Mary gave her daughter a birthday present. （2）A birthday gift was given to Jenny. （3）The play was written by William Shakespeare. （4）Do have another drink. 【答案】 考研专业课资料、辅导、答疑一站式服务平台 第 43 页，共 43 页 27．Analyze the following sentences on three levels of metafunctions. （1）John likes linguistics. （2）The paper was handed in three days later. 【答案】