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pvc外文文献广西科技大学(筹)毕业设计外文文献翻译课题名称年产1.5万吨PVC糊树脂生产车间工艺设计英文名称Yearlyproduces15,000tonPVCtosticktheresinproductionworkshoptechnologicaldesign姓名黎刚学号200700601039指导教师李克林系别生物与化学工程学院专业化学工程与工艺二○一二年五月二十日RecyclingofPVCAbstractRecyclingofusedPVCneedsacarefulcharacterizationofPVCwaste...

pvc外文文献
广西科技大学(筹)毕业设计外文文献翻译课 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 名称年产1.5万吨PVC糊树脂生产车间工艺设计英文名称Yearlyproduces15,000tonPVCtosticktheresinproductionworkshoptechnologicaldesign姓名黎刚学号200700601039指导教师李克林系别生物与化学工程学院专业化学工程与工艺二○一二年五月二十日RecyclingofPVCAbstractRecyclingofusedPVCneedsacarefulcharacterizationofPVCwaste.Theanalysisofthescrap,especiallywithrespecttothethermalstabilityandthemolecularweight,isusefulbeforereprocessing.AdditionalstabilizationofusedPVCcanbedonebyupto10wt%fillers,e.g.chalk,whichdoesnotchangethemechanicalproperties.AliteraturesurveyontheproposedconceptsandmethodsformaterialandchemicalrecyclingofPVCisgiven.q2002PublishedbyElsevierScienceLtd.Keywords:Poly(vinylchloride);Degradation;Stabilization;MaterialandchemicalrecyclingContents1RecyclingofPVC1Abstract2Contents31.Introduction42.CharacterizationofPVCwaste42.1.Thermalstability62.2.Analysisofstabilizersandotheradditives82.3.Molecularweight93.StabilizationofusedPVC93.1.Additionofheatstabilizers103.2.Improvementofthermalstabilitybyfillers113.3.ProcessingoffilledPVC133.4.Practicalexamples154.Recentinvestigationsonmaterialrecycling185.Chemicalrecycling196.Conclusions20References23聚氯乙烯的回收23摘要231.引言242.聚氯乙烯废品的性能242.1.热稳定性252.2稳定剂和其他填料的分析272.3分子量273.已用聚氯乙烯的热稳定性273.1热稳定剂的添加283.2填料改良热稳定性293.3填料聚氯乙烯的加工303.4实例324.最近关于材料回收的调查345.化学回收356.结论1.IntroductionWithatoday’sworldwideannualproductioncapacityofapproximatelymorethan30milliontopoly(vinylchloride)(PVC)isthesecondlargestvolumethermoplasticonlytopolyethyleneasvolumeleaderintheplasticsindustry[1].ItsabilitytobecompoundedwithmanyadditivestoawiderangeofflexibleandrigidproductsconstitutesthemajorfactorresponsiblefortheversatileapplicationofPVC.Becauseofthelowcostandtheprocessabilitybyawidevarietyoftechniques(e.g.calendering,extrusion,injectionmoulding,andplastisoltechniques)combinedwithgoodphysical,chemicalandweatheringproperties,PVChasbecomeauniversalpolymer[2]withmanyapplications,e.g.forpipes,profiles,floorcoverings,cableinsulation,roofingsheets,packagingfoils,bottles,andmedicalproducts.Attheendoftheservice-timeofthesearticles,largeamountsofscraparise.Therefore,thequestionofthedisposalofusedPVChasgainedincreasingimportanceinthepublicdiscussionbecauseoftheenvironmentalproblemsresultingfromtherapidgrowthoftheplasticwasteduringthelastyears.Landfillingofmunicipalsolidwasteisbecomingaburdenas,forexample,intheUnitedStatesabout80%ofwasteisdumpedintolandfills.Acontinuationatthepresentratecouldexhaustthelandfillcapacityinthenearfuture[3].AlsotheEuropeancountriesarefacedwithasimilardilemmabecausetheavailabilityofsuitablesitesislimited[4].Thus,landfillingasadisposalprocessisincreasinglyseenasthelastoption.Theenergyrecoverybyincinerationisanotherwaytodisposethemunicipalsolidwastes[5].Butenvironmentalargumentation,suchastoxicemissionsfrominadequateequipmentorinappropriateincinerationconditions,arebuildingupapublicresistanceagainstthesetechniques[6].Especially,PVCincinerationisconnectedwithsometechnologicalproblemsduetothehighchlorinecontentofthispolymerwhichyieldslargeamountsofhydrogenchlorideduringthermaldecomposition,besidethepossibilityofformationoftoxicdioxinesandfurans.Therefore,planstoexpandcapacitiesofsuchinstallationsmeetwithgrowingdifficulties.Therecyclingactivitiescanbedistinguishedbetweenchemicalfrommaterialrecycling.Thechemicalrecyclingisbasedontheideaofconvertingpolymersbackintoshort-chainchemicalsforreuseinpolymerizationorotherchemicalprocesses.Fourdifferentprocesstechnologiesarecurrentlyconsideredforchemicalrecycling:cracking,gasification,hydrogenationandpyrolysis[7].Inthemeantime,somecommercial-scaleplantsareworkingandanumberofinterestinginvestigationswiththesetechniquesareavailable[8–10].Attheend,theeconomicefficiencywillbedecisivefortheapplicationofeachrecyclingprocessinthefuture.Thematerialrecyclingisalreadypracticedinplasticsindustryovermanyyearswithpostmanufacturingwaste.Theseexperiencescanbeusedtodevelopnewconceptsformaterialrecyclingofpost-consumerwaste.Themajorproblemintherecyclingofusedplasticsisconnectedtoagreatinhomogeneityofthepolymerspresentinthewaste[11].AstatisticalstudybytheInformationSystemonPlasticsRecyclinginWesternEuropeshowsthatabout7.4%ofthe9milliontoofmunicipalsolidwasteinWesternEuropeareplasticmaterials.Fig.1showsthepercentageofdifferentpolymertypesinthetotalplasticswaste.Fig.1.Percentageofdifferentpolymertypesinthemunicipalsolidplasticwaste.Theincompatibilityofthesecomponentsisthemostimportantreasonofthedifficultprocessingandinferiormechanicalpropertiesoftheresultingproductsfrommixed,chemicallydifferentpolymers.Therefore,itisnecessarytoseparatevariouspolymerstoboosttheirvalue.Althoughtherearemanypracticalproblemssomeinterestingdevelopmentsforplasticswasteseparationwerefound[12,13].Theseparationinahydrocyclone,whichworksontheprincipleofsortingbyacentrifugalforcefield,usingdensitydifferenceofthevariouspolymersisonepossiblesolution[14].AlsoidentificationbyIRanalysisinacontinuousprocesscanbeusedforseparationofthemostcommonplastics.Sometimes,priortoseparation,itbecomesnecessarytocleanthepolymerwastetoremovecontaminationslikedirt,food,andpaper.Inthefuture,acleanPVC-streamofthemunicipalsolidwastesandfromthebuildingsectorreadyformaterialrecyclingcanbeexpected.Thiswillbeacceleratedbynewregulationsmadebythegovernmentsinsomecountries.InGermany,thefirstitemoflegislationtobeintroducedwasthe‘actontheavoidanceofpackagingwaste’[15].Itsaimistoreducethelargeamountsofpackagingwastethroughavoidanceandmaterialrecycling.Anotherfactisthatthemanufacturersandtradersaremaderesponsiblefortheirusedpackagingtorelievethelocalauthoritiesoftheburdentodisposethewaste.Inthisrespect,materialrecyclingisanecessarywaytoreducethemunicipalsolidwasteproblem.2.CharacterizationofPVCwasteManydifferentgradesandtypesofPVCareavailableallowingapplicationsasdiverseasflexiblesheets,pressurepipes,transparentbottles,andmedicalproductstobeproduced.Forthesearticles,alotofdifferentadditivesandstabilizersystemsareusedtogetsuitablepropertiesfortherespectiveapplications[16].Moreover,duringthehightemperatureprocessingandthroughouttheserviceliveoftheproductsthepolymermightbesubjectedtodegradation[17,18].Therefore,characterizationofthePVCwasteisnecessarytoobtaininformationonpropertiessuchastheresidualstability,molecularweight,andcontentofadditivesoftheindividualPVCspecies.2.1.ThermalstabilityThemaindisadvantageofPVCistheratherlimitedthermalstabilitywhichrequiresadditionofheatstabilizerstopreventdehydrochlorinationanddiscolourationduringprocessingandapplication.Withrespecttothegreatpracticalimportanceofthepolymer,thethermalandphotochemicaldegradationofPVChasbeenstudiedforalongtimeandthereisalargenumberofpublishedsurveys[19–21].Theeliminationofhydrogenchlorideatrelativelylowtemperatures(about100%)orundertheinfluenceoflightisoneofthefundamentalaspectsofPVCdecomposition.Inthefirststage,thisreactionleadstotheformationofdoublebondsfollowedbyaso-calledrapidzipper-likesplittingoffoffurtherHClmoleculestogivepolyenesequences(Fig.2).Thesesequences,withanaveragelengthof6–14conjugateddoublebonds,causethepolymertoturnyellow,brown,andeventuallyblack.Fig.2.SchemeofdehydrochlorinationofPVC.ThethermalstabilityofPVCisconsiderablylowerthanthatofitslow-molecularweightmodelanalogues.Therefore,initialsites,suchasallylicchlorinesadjacenttointernaldoublebonds,tertiarychlorinesatbranchedcarbons,head-to-headunits,andoxygen-containingstructuresarebelievedtoberesponsiblefortheinstability.Themechanisms,whichoccurduringdegradationarenotyetfullyunderstood.Thereareradicalorionicmechanismssuggested,andthetypeofreactiondependsalsoontheconditions(temperature,presenceofoxygen,etc.)duringthedecomposition.Themainfunctionofheatstabilizersistopreventdegradationduringprocessing.TheyhaveincommontheabilitytoreactwithHClwhenitisliberatedfromthepolymer.Anothertaskistoreplacelabilechlorineatoms,whichmayinitiatethedehydrochlorinationofmorestablegroups,andthustoenhancetheheatstability.Anumberoforganometalliccompoundsandinorganicsaltsareespeciallyeffectiveandsincelongtimeinpracticaluse.Apartofthestabilizerwillbeconsumedduringprocessingandsometimesduringtheapplicationperiod.Therefore,theefficiencyofthestabilizersystemisremarkablyreducedaftercompoundingPVCwiththenecessaryadditives[22]thatmakesitusefultogetinformationabouttheresidualstabilityofPVCarticlesbeforetheycanberecycled.Forthispurpose,thedeterminationofthethermallyinducedhydrogenchlorideeliminationfromPVCseemstobethebestway.Thestudyoftheearlystagesofthereactionrequiresacombinationofgoodreproducibility,highaccuracyandalowdetectionlimit.Fig.3showsanapparatuswhichisverysuitableandoftenusedforsuchstudiessincemanyyears[23].Fig.3.PVCdegradationmeasuringapparatus.(a)Rotameter,(b)degradationvesselwithPVCsample,(c)thermostat,(d)conductivitycell,(e)conductivity-meterand(f)computer.ThePVC-sample(,0.1g)isintroducedintothedegradationvesselandthenthemeasurementiscarriedoutunderisothermalconditions(e.g.180%).Astreamofwarmedupcarriergas(nitrogenorair)transportstheevolvedhydrogenchlorideintotheconductivitycellfilledwithdistilledwater.TheHCldeterminationisperformedbycontinuousconductometricmeasurements.AsaresulttheconversiontimecurveisobtainedasschematicallyshowninFig.4.Fig.4.SchematicdegradationcurveofstabilizedPVC.ThedegradationcurveofstabilizedPVCshowsaninductionperiodwherenoHClisevolved.Duringthisperiod,theheatstabilizerisconsumedandafterwardsthedehydrochlorinationbegins.Thetimeofinduction,ti,givesanimportantinformationrequiredtoestimatetheremainingstabilityofaPVCspecimenandtodecidewhetheranadditionalstabilizationisnecessaryforthematerialrecycling.Insomecases,itcanbesufficienttousethesimpleCongoRedTest,e.g.accordingtoDIN53418,insteadofthemoreexpensiveapparatusforquantitativemeasuringthehydrogenchlorideelimination.2.2.AnalysisofstabilizersandotheradditivesAsmentionedabove,thelimitedthermalstabilityofPVCrequirestheuseofheatstabilizersinalmostallfieldsofapplication.Besides,alsootheradditives(e.g.lightstabilizers,fillers,lubricants)areusedtomodifythepropertiesofPVCortoimproveitsprocessability.Atpresent,about1/3ofallusedPVCisplasticizedbyvarioustypesofmodifiers[24].Therefore,itishelpfultogetsomedetailedinformationaboutthecompositionofaspecialPVCscrapbeforereuse.Asanexample,forplasticizedPVC,theanalysisofPVCroofingsheetsisdescribedandshowinFig.5[25].Fig.5.AnalysisofPVCroofingsheets.ThefirststepisaSoxhlet-extractionofthepowderedPVCsamplewithdiethylethertoisolateplasticizers.Afterevaporationofthesolvent,thetypeandamountofplasticizercanbedetermined.Therestofthematerialisthendissolvedintetrahydrofuran(THF),and,afterfiltration,thefibrousmaterialsareobtained.Theothercomponents,insolubleinTHF,areseparatedbyacentrifuge.Theremainingresiduecanbedividedtofillersandcross-linkedPVCbyburningtoash.BydroppingtheTHFsolutioninasurplusofmethanolthedissolvedPVCisprecipitated.Thesinglecomponentsaredeterminedgravimetricallyandidentifiedbychemicalandspectroscopicmethods.UsuallythequantitativeanalysisofthemainpartsofaPVCsample(plasticizer,filler,PVCitself)willgiveenoughinformationaboutthematerial.ForthequalitativeanalysistheIR-spectroscopyisparticularlysuitedbecausethemainadditives,includingco-polymersandimpactmodifiers,showtypicalIR-bands[26].Alsootherspectroscopicmethodscanbeusedforidentificationbuttheexpendituresofsamplepreparationandequipmentarehigher.AcompletequalitativeandquantitativeanalysisofallingredientsofaPVCcompoundisdescribedinRef.[27].Finally,thedeterminationoftheheatstabilizers,asanimportantpointintheanalysisofPVCwaste,isparticularlyconsidered.TheselectionofastabilizersystemforPVCdependsonmanyfactorsincludingapplication,traditionofthemarket,andlocallegislation[28].LeadstabilizersstillarethemostwidelyusedPVCheatstabilizersforsometechnicalapplicationsbecausetheyprovidecost-effectivestabilizationsystemsandeasyprocessing.TheymaintainvolumeresistivityinplasticizedPVCcableinsulationandaretheprincipalstabilizersformanygeneral-purposeapplications.ImportantareseveralmixedmetalcarboxylatesoapsasPVCstabilizers,e.g.barium–cadmium,barium–zinc,calcium–zinc.Sincemanyyears,barium–cadmiumsystemshavebeenusedinEuropeinwhitewindowframeswithgoodweatheringproperties.Buttheutilizationofcadmiuminstabilizersorpigmentsrecentlybecameunderincreasingscrutiny.Atpresent,allmanufacturersusealternativesystemssuchascalcium–zincstabilizers[29,30].Theyareappliedforfoodpackaging,waterbottles,andmedicalproducts.Thenumberofapplicationsislikelytoincreasewiththeavailabilityoflesstoxicadditives.Organotincompoundsformanotherlargegroupofstabilizersystemswheremono-anddialkyltinsarethemostwidelyused.Theirpropertiesdependonthenatureofthealkylandestergroupspresent.Thetoxicityofthedialkyltintypesdecreaserapidlywiththechainlengthofthealkylgroup,sothat,e.g.octyltincompoundsareacceptedforfoodcontactapplications.Also,somesulfur-containingorganotin-stabilizersareusedbecausetheyofferexcellentheatstabilityandclarity.AsimplepossibilitytoobtainadetailedinformationonthestabilizersysteminPVCwastecanbeseenintheclassicanalysesmethodswhicharecommonpracticeininorganicchemistryfortheseparationanddeterminationofcations.Theonlydifficultyistofindaneasilypracticalwaytogetthemetalliccationsintothewaterphase.Forthispurpose,thePVCsamplecanbedissolvedincyclohexanoneandthereceivedsolutionisusedforaliquid/liquid-extractionwithnitricacidcontainingwater.Afterphaseseparation,thedifferentcationsarefoundinthewatersolution.Thedeterminationofthemetalscanalsobeaccomplishedbythinlayerchromatography,usinganorganicsolutionofPVCinTHF[31].Sometimes,aprecipitationofthepolymermightbenecessary,andheremainingmethanol/THFsolutionisusedfortheidentification.Besides,somespectroscopicmethodsaredescribedforstabilizeranalysis[32].Theinfraredspectroscopynowadaysisthepreferredmethodforthispurposebecauseofitseasyfeasibilitycombinedwithahighdetectionrate[33].2.3.MolecularweightFordifferentkindsofprocessingandvariousapplications,industryoffersPVCtypeswithK-valuesbetween55and80[34].TheK-valueisatraditionalunitofmeasurementuseduntilnowbymanufacturerstodescribethemolecularweightofPVCmaterials.Thisinformationisnecessarytodecidewhichprocessingtechniquecanbeusedforrecycling.Also,undertheinfluenceofheat,light,andoxygen,PVCchainscanbedegradedorevencross-linkedwhichresultsinchangesinthemolecularweightandmolecularweightdistribution[22].Astherearecorrelationsbetweenmolecularweight,processability,andmechanicalpropertiesofPVC,itisimportanttoinvestigatechangesinmolecularweightduringprocessingoruse.ThesimplestmethodformolecularweightmeasurementsincludesthedeterminationoftheviscosityofaPVCsolution.ThePVCisusuallydissolvedincyclohexanoneandmeasuredat25%,e.g.accordingtoDIN53726.Forpracticalpurposes,theobtainedK-valuegivessufficientinformationinmostcases.UsingtheMark–Houwinkequation,themolecularweightcanalsobealculatedfromtheresultsoftheviscositymeasurements[35].Now,thegelpermeationchromatography,GPC,isbyfarthemostpopularmethodofmolecularweightmeasurement[21].Itnotonlygivesinformationonthemolecularweightbutalsoonthemolecularweightdistribution.Normally,THFisusedassolventandthecolumnsarecalibratedwithpolystyreneorPVCstandards.Insomeeases,theresultsmightbemisleading,eitheriftheinvestigatedPVCsampleisnotdissolvedproperlyorifitcontainspolymerthatispartiallyinsolubleduetoformerreatment,e.g.cross-linkingundertheinfluenceofheatorlight.3.StabilizationofusedPVCPVCarticlesaresusceptibletodegradationatalmostallstagesoftheirlifetime:production,storage,processing,transportation,andend-use.Severalpossibleinfluences,whichcanbehostiletopolymers,areheat,light,oxygen,andmechanicalstress.Therefore,thestabilizersystemispartiallyconsumedduringtheservicelifeofPVCproducts.AnexampleisshowninFig.6wheretheconversion-timecurveofa15–20yearsoldwindowframescrapandapost-manufacturingwindowframewastearecompared.Fig.6.Degradationcurveofapost-manufacturingwindowframewaste(—)andanabout20yearsoldwindowframescrap(---)(1808C,nitrogen).Theinductiontimeofthepost-manufacturingwasteismuchlongerthantheinductionperiodoftheoldPVCscrap.Also,someotherstudiesonthechangesinpropertiesofrigidPVCduringweatheringshowareductionofthestabilizersefficiency[36].So,therecyclingofPVCwasteoffersalotofproblemsduetothelimitedthermalstabilitywhichrequires,inmostcases,theadditionofnewstabilizers.3.1.AdditionofheatstabilizersAsmentionedbeforethemeasurementoftheresidualstabilityofaPVCarticlemayleadtotheresultthatanadditionalstabilizationisnecessaryforefficientrecycling.Theuseofnewheatstabilizersforthispurposeisconnectedwithsomedifficulties.First,itisnecessarytodeterminethestabilizersystempresentinthePVCwastebecausesomestabilizersarenotcompatiblewithothers.Forinstance,asulfurcontainingtinstabilizercanreactwithaleadstabilizerduringprocessingandtheresultingmaterialwouldhavedarkspotsfromleadsulfideformed,besidesthereducedefficiencyofthesystem.Moreover,theuseofheavymetalsinstabilizersmightbeforbiddeninafewyearsbythegovernmentsofsomecountriesbecauseoftheirtoxicity.Ifthishappens,everyprocessingcompanywillhavetheproblemhowtostabilizeoldPVCproductsifmaterialrecyclingisdesired.3.2.ImprovementofthermalstabilitybyfillersTheuseofafillerasaco-stabilizerisanalternativepossibilitytorecyclePVCwastewithoutadditionoffurtherstabilizers.Forthispurpose,calciumcarbonateissuitable,becauseitisabletoreactwithhydrogenchloride.Furthermore,chalkhasgoodproperties(e.g.awidevarietyofcalciumcarbonatematerialsisavailable,lowprice,noabrasionofprocessingequipment,reducedplate-out,increasingmechanicalproperties,andhomogeneousdistributionbycoating)makingitpopularasPVCfiller[16].InFig.7,thedegradation-curvesoftwostabilizedPVCsamples(onewith10phr(partsperhundredpartsresin)calciumcarbonateandonewithoutfiller)areillustrated.Fig.7.DehydrochlorinationofPVCat1808Cundernitrogen.PVCfilledwith10phrchalk(—),PVCwithoutfiller(---).TheadditionofchalkincreasesthethermalstabilityofthefilledPVCsample,indicatedbyalongerinductionperiodofdehydrochlorination.Also,therateofHCl-eliminationislowerinthepresenceofcalciumcarbonate.OtherinvestigationswithunstabilizedPVCsampleshaveshownthatthefilleractsasatrapforthesplit-offhydrogenchloride,buthasnoinfluenceonthedecompositionofPVC.ThisisconfirmedbytheUV-spectraofPVCwhichwasheat-treatedintheabsenceandinthepresenceofchalk[22].Underbothconditions,thesameunsaturatedsequencesinPVCareformed,asshowninFig.8(curvesaandb).Onthecontrary,inthepresenceofstabilizers(curvesc)practicallynopolyenesequencesareformedduringtheinductionperiod.Fig.8.UV–visspectraofPVCinTHF(2g/lbefore(d)andafter(a–c)thermaldegradation(30minat1808Cundernitrogen).Consequently,onecanconcludethatchalkactsasasuitableco-stabilizerforPVCincreasingitsthermalstability,butonlyinconnectionwithadditionalortheremainingactiveheatstabilizerinPVCwaste.ThelowerHCl-eliminationratecanbeexplainedbythefactthathydrogenchloride,whichreactswiththefiller,doesnotexhibitthewell-knowncatalyticeffectonthefurtherPVCdegradation[37].3.3.ProcessingoffilledPVCSomestudieswithfilledandunfilledrigidPVCweremadetodescribetheeffectofchalkasadditionalstabilizer.AsuspensionPVC(K-value70)withanorganotinstabilizer(2phr)andlubricants(1.8phr)wasusedastheexperimentalmaterial.Apartofthiscompoundwasfilledwithastearicacidcoatedcalciumcarbonate(10phr)asanadditionalcomponent.ThePVCpowderandtheadditivesweremixedinanintensivemixer.Thereceiveddryblendswerepelletizedbyextrusiontogetabetterdispersionoftheadditivesinthepolymermaterial.Finally,thegranulatewasprocessedbyinjectionmouldingtotestspecimensformeasurementsofmechanicalproperties.Tensilestress–straindataatconstantdeformationrateandconstanttemperatureareundoubtedlythemostvaluablemechanicaldataforthecharacterizationofrigidPVC[38].Theyarewidelyusednotonlyformaterialselectionbutalsotodeterminethestrengthoftheresultingproductsandtomeasuretheretentionofmechanicalstrengthbyoutdoororacceleratedexposure.Stress–strainmeasurementsaregenerallymadeintension,e.g.accordingtoDIN53455.Thestandardtestpieceisstretchedatauniformrateuntilitbreaks.Fromthex–yplot,thetensilestrength,theelongationatbreak,andthemodulusofelasticityareobtained.Afurtherimportantmechanicalpropertyofapolymermaterialisthetoughnesswhichcanbedeterminedbyanimpacttest[38].Thetestersarependuluminstrumentsthatbreakthespecimenwithahammer.ForthispurposetheCharpy-method,accordingtoDIN53735,withnotchedstandardtestpiecescanbeused.TheresultsofsuchmechanicalmeasurementsaregiveninTable1.Thestress–straindiagramsofthePVCsamplesshowaductilebehaviourwithayield-point.Theadditionofchalkcausesahighermodulusofelasticity,whereasthetensilestrengthisslightlydiminished.Theelongationatbreakisnearlyequal,andalsothenotchedimpactstrengthsofthefilledandunfilledPVCareonthesamelevel.OnecaninferfromthesedatathattheuseofcalciumcarbonateasfillerbringsnodiscredituponthemechanicalpropertiesofrigidPVCifthefillerishomogeneouslydistributedinthepolymermaterialduringprocessing.Fig.9.Conversion-timecurvesoftwoprocessedPVCsamples:StabilizedPVCwith10phrchalk(—),stabilizedPVCwithoutfiller(---)Fig.9showsthedegradation-curvesofthetwoPVCsamples.TheinductionperiodofthefilledPVC(<300min)issignificantlylongerthanthatoftheunfilledPVC(<160min).Alsoofinterestisthefact,that,inthepresenceofchalk,therateofHCl-eliminationafterconsumptionofthestabilizersystemisower.AcomparisonofFig.9withFig.7showsacorrespondingshapeofthedegradation-curvesofthefilledandunfilledPVCsamples.TheadditionalstabilizationwithcalciumcarbonateinPVCcompoundscouldbeprovedalsounderrealisticprocessingconditions[37].Somemoreinvestigations,suchasvariationoftheconcentrationoffillerandchangeoftheparticlesize,weremadetogetfurtherdetailsabouttheinfluenceofchalkinPVC.Itcouldbeshownthatthestabilizingeffectincreaseswiththecontentofcalciumcarbonateinthemixture.Butthereisamaximumatabout30phrfillerbecauseoftheincreaseinshearviscosityintheusedprocessingmachineswhichleadstoanincreasingthermomechanicaltreatmentofthematerial.Anotherlimitingfactoristhechangeofthemechanicalbehaviourfromductiletobrittlewithrisingamountsofchalkconnectedwithlowervaluesofelongationatbreakandimpactstrength.3.4.PracticalexamplesToconfirmtheapplicabilityofthesuggestedrecyclingconceptwithrealPVCwaste,threedifferentusedrigidPVCproductswereinvestigatedasdescribedabove.TheobtainedresultsareshowninTable2.ThethreesampleswereprocessedaccordingtomethodsusedforthevirginPVCasdescribedabove.First,thebigpiecesofPVCwastehadtobehandledinamilltogetapowderedmaterial.Then,halfofthesingleregrindsweremixedwith10phrofastearicacidcoatedcalciumcarbonate.Testspecimenswerereceivedbyextrusionandinjectionmoulding.Fig.10showsthemodulusofelasticityandtheensilestrengthofPVCwith10wt%chalkwithincreasingrepeatedprocessing.Untilabouteightrepetitionsthereisonlylittlechangeinthemechanicalpropertiesofthesesamples.DetailedinformationabouttheprocessingconditionsofthemodificationofPVCscrapwithchalk,aimingatagooddistributionofthefiller,aregiveninRef.[39].Fig.10.ModulusofelasticityandimpactstrengthofPVCfilledwith10wt%chalkatrepeatedprocessing.Fig.10.ModulusofelasticityandimpactstrengthofPVCfilledwith10wt%chalkatrepeatedprocessing.InTable3,theresultsofthemechanicalmeasurementsofthethreeprocessedPVCwasteswithoutadditionoffillerarecomparedwiththechalkmodifiedsamples.Theinfluenceoftheaddedamountofchalkcorrespondstotheeffectsdiscussedearlier,exceptforthenotchedimpactstrength.Thesevaluesareslightlyhigherforthemodifiedspecimensofthematerials1and3,whereasthefilledsampleofmaterial2hasalowervalueTable4showstheinductiontimeoftheprocessedsamplesandtheoriginalPVCwaste.Asexpected,theinductionperioddecreasesduetothethermomechanicaltreatmentduringprocessing,butacomparisonoftheunmodifiedandthemodifiedPVCwasteindicatesaconsiderablestabilizingeffectofchalk.Also,thevisualevaluationoftheproducedspecimensindicatesabettercolourqualityofthemodifiedsamples.Especially,PVCscrapwithalowresidualstability(materials2and3)needsanadditionalstabilizationforreuse.Thisisalsoimpressivelyillustratedbytheconversion-timecurveofmaterial2(Fig.11).Thechalk-modifiedsamplehasabetterheatstabilitythantheoriginalproductinspiteofonemoreprocessingcycle.Fig.11.Degradationcurvesofmaterial2.OriginalPVCwaste(—);processedPVCwastewithoutadditionofchalk(---);processedPVCwastewithadditional10phrofchalk(–––).AnotherpossibilityofPVCrecyclingwithoutadditionalstabilizationisseeninmixingofPVCwastewithanewmaterial.SeveralstudiesareavailableabouttheuseofPVCscrapinthemanufacturingprocessofvariousPVCarticles[40–43].TheydescribemainlytheinfluenceofregrindonthepropertiesofvirginPVC.TheinvestigationsmadeonthereuseofroofingsheetsshowthatnewPVCroofingsheetscancontainupto10–20%ofrecycledmaterialwithoutanyadverseeffectontheproductquality[25].NewprocessingtechniquesofferanotherwaytorecyclePVCscrap.Oneexampleistheproductionofwindowframesbyco-extrusion[44].TheregeneratedPVCisusedincorewhereasvirginresinisusedastheskin.Inthisprocessonly1/3ofnewmaterialisnecessarytoobtainthesamepropertiesasofawindowframefrom100%virginPVC.Theco-extrusionprocessisalsofeasiblefortheproductionofpipeswheretheinsideandtheoutsidelayersareproducedfromanewresinandtheoldmaterialisusedforthethickmiddlelayer[45].4.RecentinvestigationsonmaterialrecyclingWhereaschemicalrecyclingofusedPVCplaysonlyaminorrole,manyinvestigationsontherecoveryofPVCfromscrapareknown.SomeprocessesusethedissolutionofPVCinorganicsolventslikecyclohexanone,ethylmethylketoneortetrahydrofuran(THF)[46].ByselectedextractionofPVCfromplasticwasteuncontaminatedPVCforfurtherapplicationcanbeobtained[47],butmostoftheseprocessesarestillinthedevelopmentphase[48,49].SpecialinterestisgiventotheseparationofPVCandpolyesterslikepoly(ethyleneglycolterephthalate)(PET).GlycolysisofPETleadstooligomersthatareabletopolycondensatewithcaprolactone.TheobtaineddiolsareextendedwithaliphaticdiisocyanateswhichunderspecialconditionsresultinpolyurethanesthataretotallymisciblewithPVCtogiveblendswithacceptablemechanicalproperties[50].TheseparationofPVCandPETcanalsobeperformedbytheirdifferentmechanicalproperties[51]orbyotherautomaticsortationdevices.BasisofsuchprocessesisthedetectionofchlorineinPVCbydifferentphysicaltechniqueslikeX-rayfluorescenceorelectromagneticrays[13].AnotherpossibilityforidentificationofPVCinmixtureswithotherpolymersisofferedbytheuseofmarkedPVCwhichcanbepreparedbyreactiveprocessingofPVCwithsodium2-thionaphtholateorsodium-p-thiocresolate.SuchmarkedPVCcanbedistinguishedfrompolyolefinesbytheirUV-absorption[52].DetailsontherecyclingofPVC/PETcompositesaregiveninRef.[53]wherethedissolvingofPVCinTHFandtheanalysisofthepurityandthepropertiesoftheobtainedmaterialsisdescribed.ThepurificationofhighlypollutedPET(withabout6%PVCand1%polyolefines)ispossiblebyselectivedissolutionofPVCinTHF,ethylmethylketoneandinamylacetate/xylolmixturesforpolyolefines[54].StronglyalkalinesolutionsofsodiumhydroxideareabletodestroythehydrophobicityofPETwhereasthehydrophobicityofPVCremainsonlyslightlyaffectedbythesesolutions.Onthisbasis,atechnologyinvolvingtreatmentofPETandPVCparticleswithalkalinesolutionsfollowedbyfrothfloatationofPVCwithnon-ionicsurfactantshasbeendevelopedandtested.Inbothstepsofthistechnology,appropriateexperimentalconditionssuchasconcentrationofreagents,temperatureandresidencetimehasbeenoptimizedforseparationofPVCfromPVC/PETmixturesofvaryingcomposition.Usingthismethod,95–100%recoveryofPETandPVCcanbeachievedfromavarietyofPVC/PETmixtures[55].AnotherwayforrecyclingofPVC/PETmixturesorPVC/PET/polyethylenescrapisdescribedbyusingelectrostaticseparation[56].ManyinvestigationsweredonetouserecycledPVCinblends.ThemostsimplewayisblendingofrecycledPVCwithvirginmaterial.BlendsofPVCforpipeswithrecycledPVCfrompost-consumedoilbottlesshowgoodprocessingbehaviourandmechanicalpropertiesdependingontheamountoftheaddedrecyclate[57].MuchmoredifficultistheblendingofPVCwithotherpolymers,asmostcombinationsareincompatibleandthereforeshowbadprocessingbehaviourandinsufficientmechanicalproperties.Insomecasestheadditionofcompatibilizerscanhelptoovercometheseproblems.Forexample,inPVC/PSsystemshighimpactpolystyrenewhichisnotgoodenoughasacompatibilizer,canenhancethemechanicalproperties.Inthisandseveralsimilarcasescompatibilizerscanincreasethemechanicalpropertiesingeneralwithincreasingconcentrationduetotheincreaseofcompatibility[58].ThemechanicalpropertiesofsuchblendsareconsistentwiththeirmorphologyasstudiedbySEM[59].InmixturesofrecycledPVCfrombottlesortubeswithvirginPVCforthemanufacturingofnewtubestheparticlesizeandtheadditionofstabilizersdeterminethemechanicalpropertiesandthehomogeneityoftheresultingblends.Ingeneral,bytherecycledPVCthemodulusandtheimpactstrengthwerenotremarkablychanged,whereastheimpactstrengthandtheprocessabilityinsomecasesareevenimproved,butthethermomechanicalpropertiesareworse[60].ThepossibilityofrecyclingofPVCresultingfromtherotationalmouldingofplastisolswasalsostudied.PartsofprocessedPVCweregroundwithliquidnitrogenintofourfractionsofdifferentsizeswhichwereaddedtoaplastisolatdifferentconcentrations.Bystudyingtheviscosityoftheplastisolsandthegelationandfusionprocesseswasshownamarkedincreaseintheviscosityandmoduliduringthegelationwithtime.However,theplastisolswithrecycledPVConlyshowanadequateprocessabilityiftheyareusedimmediatelyaftertheirpreparation[61].Onthebasisoftheabovementionedinvestigations,thereareseveralindustrialconceptsforPVCrecycling,someofthemarerealizedinthemeantime,soforwindowprofiles,floorcovering,waterbottles,foilsandblistersorcheckcards[62,63].Forwindowprofilesuptoninerepeatedextrusionprocesseswereinvestigated[64].Thepropertieslikeimpactstrength,modulus,Vicattemperature,thermalstability,etc.ofrecycledwindowframeprofilesfrom20to25yearsoldwindowsaredetermined,itisshownthatsuchrecycledPVCissuitableforreprocessing[65].TheheatimpactofPVCbottlematerialsduringtherecyclingprocessat160–180%wasinvestigatedbyIR-andUV-spectroscopyandbyDSC.Thebottlesamplesareslightlyandconsiderablyaffectedatthesetemperaturesasshownbydeterminationoftheformeddecompositionproducts,colourchange,lossofvolatilecomponentsandperoxideformationinair.However,sincethesedecompositionsoccurredatabout30minofexperimentaltimewhichisaboutsix-foldofthatofrealprocesstimes,thereclaimedmaterialwasfoundrecyclablewhichmakestheuseofthismaterialintheproductionofwindowsections,profiles,pipesandevenbottlespossible[66].InvestigationsonthemechanicalpropertiesofrecycledPVCbottlematerialseparatedfromthepostconsumerwastestreamshowsignificantreductioninstrengthandductility.Itisbelievedthatthemainreasonforthisisthepresenceofimpurities,especiallyPET,whichalthoughpresentatlevelsbelow0.5%hadalargeeffectontheproperties[67].AlsoinvestigatedwasthedegradationthatoccursduringmultiplereprocessingofrecycledPVCfrompost-consumerbottlesusingIR-analysisandmolecularweightmeasurements.Batchesofrecycledflakeandpowderaswellaspurebutprocessedbottleflakematerialsweresubjectedtosimulatedmultiplerecyclingusingatorquerheometer.TheresultsindicatedarapiddegradationoftherecycledmaterialcomparedwithpurerbottleflakePVC.Multiplerecyclingofbottleflakemixedwith0.2%polyethyleneshowedthatthePEimpuritiesacceleratethedegradationprocess.Restabilizationbyaddingnewbottleflakematerialsurprisinglypreventeddegradationevenatsmalllevelsofnewmaterial(30%)andevenafter15recyclingsteps[68].RecycledPVCbottlematerialcanbeusedsuccessfullyincalcium–zincstabilizedPVCfoamformulationstoproduceprofilesofsaleablequality.Increasingamountsofbottlerecyclatehadnosignificanteffectongelationtime,meltrheologyorplate-outcharacteristicandgaverisetoanimprovementonthermalstability.Foamblendscanbeextrudedtoproduceprofilesofgoodsurfacefinishandlowfoamdensity.Upto100%PVCbottlerecyclatedidnotaffectthedensity,cellstructureorimpactpropertiesofco-extrudedfoamprofiles[69].FoamedPVCrecyclatecanalsobeusedforinnerlayersintubeswheredensitiesatabout0.5g/cm3arepossible[70].ThereuseofrecycledPVCincableinsulationsisdescribedinRef.[71].Forthispurpose,itisnecessarytorecovercopperandPVCfromcableformsoriginatingfromusedmotorcars.PVCcanbedissolvedandseparatedtobereusedincableandwireinsulating.Itisreportedthatcablesusing100%recycledPVChavesuccessfullypassedpreliminarytests.Cableformswith50%PVCrecyclatehavebeenreleasedfortheproductionofnewcarsbyseveralmanufacturers[72].Since1990PVCfloorcoveringswerecollectedandrecycledinGermany.FirstresultsandpracticalexperiencesarereportedinRef.[73].OtherrecyclingconceptshavebeendevelopedforuseofrecycledPVCpackagingorbottlematerialascoreinco-extrudedcellularprofiles.Theproductshadsatisfactorydensity,foamstructure,colourandsurfacefinish.Usingupto100%bottlerecyclatedidnotaffecttheimpactpropertiesofthefoamprofile.Recycledsupermarkettraysactuallygaveanimprovementinimpactproperties,probablyduetohighlevelsofimpactmodifierusedintrayformulation[74].Also,recoveryandreuseofwastePVCcoatedfabricsisdescribed,extractingPVCwithaselectedaqueousethylmethylketonesolution.Thisso-calledswellingmethodisasimpleprocedurewithminimumenvironmentalimpact.Thebehaviouroftheswellingsystemandtheswellingpropertiesofrecoveredcomponentscanbecharacterizedbyrefractiveindex,swellingdegreeandtheaverageparticlesizeofrecoveredPVC[75].AdetailedanalysisofthecomponentsseparatedfromPVCcoatedPETfabricsisalsodescribed.TherecoveredPETstaplefibrescrapcandirectlybeusedtoreinforceepoxidesortoformanon-wovenfabriconaspecialmachine[76].Finally,alsotheusabilityofPVCpapermixtureswhichwereobtained,e.g.fromvinylwallpaperwasinvestigated.SuchmaterialcanbeprocessedbythermopressingtosheetswhichcanbeappliedforinsulatingwithaPVC-foilasupperlayer[77].5.ChemicalrecyclingBesidesthematerialrecyclingofPVCthereareseveralattemptstopreparelowmolecularproductsfromPVCbychemicalorthermaltreatment.MostoftheproposedprocessesusetherathereasydehydrochlorinationofPVCeitherundertheinfluenceofheatofalkalinemedia.Thedegradativeextrusion[78]isbasedonthedegradationofPVCinanextruderbyheatandmechanicalenergyinthepresenceofoxygen,steamand/orcatalysts.ThemaindegradationproductHClcanbeused,forexample,forthesynthesisofmonomervinylchloridewhereastheremainingpolymerisnotyetcompletelyfreeofchlorineandhasatoohighmeltviscosityfordirectapplication.AnotherpossibilityistheoxidativedegradationofPVCbymolecularoxygeninaqueousalkalinesolution[79–81]attemperaturesbetween150and260%withoxygenpressuresof1–10MPa.Themainproductsareoxalicacidandcarbondioxide,theiryielddependingonthereactionconditionsandthealkaliconcentration.Themaximumyieldofoxalicacidwas45%;42%ofthechlorinecontentcouldberecoveredintheformofHCl.OptionsforPVCfeedstockrecyclingforrecoverychlorineandorganicproductsarepresentedinRefs.[82,83].Thechlorineisreusedintheformofpurifiedhydrochloricacidorsaltandhydrocarbonsintheformofenergyorasfeedstockforthepetrochemicalindustry.ResultsofsuchinvestigationstoconsidertreatmentofPVCrichbasedstreamsarepresentedinRef.[83],togetherwithrecommendationsonpotentialprocessesandtechnology.AnewpilotplantforchemicalrecyclingofPVCispresentlyinstalledinTavaux(France).TheprocessisbasedonaslagbathgasificationdevelopedbyLindeAG.PVCwasteisconvertedwithoxygen,steamandsandaccordingtothefollowingformula:[-CH2–CHCl-]n+O2+2H2O→2HCl+4H2+4COTheobtainedHClandthesyngaswillbeusedforthemanufacturingofnewPVC.AschemeofthepilotplantispresentedinFig.12[84].Fig.12.PilotplantforchemicalrecyclingofPVC.6.ConclusionsThestudiesontherecycling-abilityofusedPVCshowtheimportanceofacarefulcharacterization,especiallyifmixedPVCfromthemunicipalsolidwasteseparationshouldberecycled.TheanalysisofthecompositionandadetailedknowledgeoftheheathistoryandthemolecularweightofaPVCscrapareusefulbeforereprocessing.ThesuggestedadditionalstabilizationwithcalciumcarbonateisaneffectivemethodfortherecyclingofPVCwastewithalowremainingthermostability.Theadditionofchalk,uptoacontentof10phr,doesnotsignificantlychangethemechanicalproperties,whereasitremarkablyincreasestheheatstability.Anumberofschemeshavebeeninitiatedtocollectplasticsandtoreprocessthemtousefularticles.Themostadvantageoussituationoccurswhenasourceofasinglematerialtypecanbeidentified,forexample,frompackaging,bottles,orwindowprofiles.Suchmaterialscanoftenbesimplyreformulatedandconvertedintohighqualityproducts.Nevertheless,newmaterialrecyclingconceptsforPVCmixtureshavetobeestablishedbecauseinfuturetheenvironmentalpreferenceswillplayalargerroleintheselectionofamaterial[85].ApracticalreuseofPVCrequiresacontinuousstreamofsuitablescrapandthefurtherdevelopmentoftechnologiestoreachthespecificationsfortheintendedapplications.Anotherimportantpointisthatmarketsforthesecondaryproductsmustexisttomakethematerialrecyclingasuccessfuleconomicalenterprise.References[1]EngelmannM.AngewMakromolChem1997;244:1.[2]FelgerKH,editor.Kunststoff-Handbuch.Polyvinylchloride,vol.2/1.Mu¨nchen:Hanser;1986.[3]SummersJW,MikofalvyBK,WootonGV,SellWA.JVinylTechnol1990;12:154.[4]MatthewsV.PlastRubberComposProcessAppl1993;19:197.[5]BreckerLR.PolymPrepr1991;32(2):125.[6]FreieslebenW.RoleandimportanceofmaterialrecyclinginplasticswastemanagementduringthenextdecadeinWesternEurope.In:MengesG,MichaeliW,BittnerM,editors.RecyclingvonKunststoffen.Mu¨nchen:Hanser;1992.[7]MaplestonP.ModPlastInd1993;23(8):32.[8]HolighausR,NiemannK.Kunststoffberater1993;38(4):51.[9]MeszarosMW.EngngPlast1992;5:335.[10]Anonymous.NeueVerpack1992;45(10):58.[11]LaMantiaFP.PolymDegradStab1992;37:145.[12]Anonymous.GummiFasernKunstst1991;44:38.[13]GottesmanRT.MakromolChem,MacromolSymp1992;57:133.[14]SchimpfA.Kunststoffe1992;82:908.[15]BittnerM,MichaeliW.AnnuTechConf—SocPlastEngng1992;252.[16]Ga¨chterR,Mu¨llerH,editors.TaschenbuchderKunststoff—Additive,3rded.Mu¨nchen:Hanser;1989.[17]HamidSH,AminMB,MaadhahAG,Al-JarallahAM.AnnuTechConf—SocPlastEngng1992;215.[18]RileyDW.JVinylTechnol1990;12(1):20.[19]BraunD.Thermaldegradationofpoly(vinylchloride).In:GrassieN,editor.Developmentsinpolymerdegradation-3.London:AppliedSciencePublishers;1981.[20]KelenT,Polymerdegradation,NewYork:VanNostrandReinholdCompany;1983.[21]WypychJ.Polyvinylchloridedegradation.In:JenkinsAD,editor.Polymersciencelibrary3.Amsterdam:Elsevier;1985.[22]BraunD.MakromolChem,MacromolSymp1992;57:265.[23]BraunD,ThallmaierM.Kunststoffe1966;56:80.[24]MeyerHH.Kunststoffe1993;82:744.[25]DeinertJ.DiplomaThesis.THDarmstadt;1991.[26]KimmerW,SchmolkeR.PlasteKautsch1985;32:145.[27]BraunD,BezdadeaE.AngewMakromolChem1983;113:77.[28]MarkHF,BikalesNM,OverbergerCG,MengesG,editors,2nded.Encyclopediaofpolymerscienceandengineering,supplementvolume.NewYork:Wiley;1989.p.822–89.[29]BeckR.Plastverarbeiter1988;39(10):128.[30]Go¨rlichE.Kunststoffe1990;80:432.[31]BraunD,RichterE.KautschGummiKunstst1997;50:208.seealsopage696.[32]HummelD,SchollF,Atlasderpolymer-undKunststoffanalyse,vol.3.Mu¨nchen/Weinheim:Hanser/VerlagChemie;1981.[33]SchmolkeR,KimmerW,SauerW.ActaPolym1979;30:432.[34]FelgerKH,editor.Kunststoff-handbuch.Polyvinylchloride,vol.2/1.Mu¨nchen:Hanser;1986.p.73.seealsopage313.[35]KurataM,TsunashimaY.In:BrandrupJ,ImmergutEH,GrulkeEA,editors.Viscosity–molecularweightrelationships,4thed.Polymerhandbook,NewYork:Wiley;1999.[36]JakubowiczI,Mu¨llerK.PolymDegradStab1992;36:111.[37]BraunD,Kra¨merK.Kunststoffe1995;85:822.[38]GomezIL.In:NassLI,editor.TestingrigidPVCproducts.EncyclopediaofPVC,vol.3.NewYork:MarcelDekker;1977.[39]BraunD,Kra¨merK.ChemTech(Leipzig)1995;47(4):89.[40]SummersJW,MikofalvyBK,BooHK,KrogstieJM,RodriguezJC,SellWA.JVinylTechnol1992;14:166.[41]FazeyT.JVinylTechnol1992;14:83.[42]CovasJA,SilvaCA.JVinylTechnol1993;15(3):124.[43]RabinovitchEB,BoothPC.JVinylTechnol1990;12:43.[44]BerndtsenN,HofmannV.Kunststoffe1991;81:907.[45]SaffertR.SwissPlast1990;12(1/2):71.[46]SambaleH,Ka¨uferH,editor.SchriftenreiheKunststoff-Forschung1999;44:1–111.TUBerlin.[47]Anonymous.KunststRecyclcomPress1997;4(94):3.[48]SchillingJ.KunststSynth2000;47(5):18.[49]ThieleA.Kunststoffberater1994;39(12):12.[50]UsinchiJM,PietrasantaY,RobinJJ,BoutevinB.JApplPolymSci1998;69(4):657.[51]FamechonR.MakromolChem,MacromolSymp1992;57:95.[52]HidalgoM,LopezD,MijangosC.JVinylTechnol1994;16(3):162.[53]KnaufU,Ma¨urerA,HolleyW,WieseM,UtschikH.Kunststoffe2000;90(2):72.[54]TersacG,RabikM,StambouliM,DeuerleinJ,DurandG.EurPolymJ1994;30(2):221.[55]DrelichJ,PayneT,KimJH,MillerJD,KoblerR,ChristiansenS.PolymEngngSci1998;38(9):1378.[56]StahlI.GummiFasernKunstst1993;46(3):134.[57]Popovska-PavlovskaF,TrajkovskaA,GavrilovT.MakromolSymp2000;149:191.[58]BraunD,FischerM.AngewMakromolChem1995;233:77.[59]LinH-R,LinC-T.PolymPlastTechnolEngng1999;38(5):1031.[60]WenguangM,LaMantiaFP.JApplPolymSci1996;59(5):759.[61]GarciaJC,MarcillaA,BeltranM.Polymer1998;39(11):2261.[62]FreyW.Kunststoffberater1994;39(9):40.[63]SpauldingCH.AnnuTechConf—SocPlastEngng1995;3670.[64]GuterlM,Schu¨leH.Plastverarbeiter1994;45(10):78.[65]Ro¨hreE,ToepferH.Plastverarbeiter1995;46(7):28.[66]KlutanS.JApplPolymSci1998;69(5):865.[67]ArnoldJC,MaundB.PolymEngngSci1999;39(7):1234.[68]ArnoldJC,MaundB.PolymEngngSci1999;39(7):1242.[69]ThomasNL,QuirkJP.RubberComposProcessAppl1995;24(2):89.[70]Anonymous.KunststRecyclcomPress1996;3(50):8.[71]HeitelK,RognerG.Kunststoffe1995;85(11):1952.[72]AdamF.Plastverarbeiter1998;49(2):23.[73]BonauH.MakromolChem,MacromolSymp1992;57:243.[74]ThomasNL.CellPolym1997;16(5):364.[75]AdanurS,HouJ,BroughtonRM.JCoatedFabr1998;28(July):37.[76]AdanurS,HouJ,BroughtonRM.JCoatedFabr1998;28(Oct):145.[77]BielinskyM,KasprzykE,WogrollyE.OesterrKunstst-Z1994;25(9/10):227.[78]MichaeliW,LacknerV.AnnuTechConf—SocPlastEngng1994;2901.[79]YoshiokaT,YasudaS,KawamuraK,SatoT,OkuwakiA.NipponKagakuKaishi1992;5:534.[80]ShinS-M,YoshiokaT,OkuwakiA.PolymDegradStab1998;61(2):349.[81]YoshiokaT,FurukawaK,SatoT,OkuwakiA.JApplPolymSci1998;70(1):129.[82]WidmerA.KunststSynth1994;25(12):28.[83]Bu¨hlT.PlastRubberCompos1999;28(3):131.[84]InformationofArbeitsgemeinschaftPVCundUmwelte.V.,D-53113Bonn.[85]To¨tschW,GaensslenH.Polyvinylchloride.Environmentalaspectsofacommonplastic.NewYork:Elsevier;1992.聚氯乙烯的回收摘要已用聚氯乙烯的回收利用需要对聚氯乙烯废品的性能进行详细的分析。在重加工之前对废品特别是对其热力学稳定性和分子量进行分析是非常有用的。在不改变其机械性能的基础上可以通过添加10%重量的填料比如石粉可增加聚氯乙烯废料的热稳定性。聚氯乙烯化学回收的概念和方法在2002年ElsevierScienceLtd中已经被一篇文献提出。关键字:聚氯乙烯(聚氯乙烯)降解热稳定性直接回收和化学回收1.引言全球范围内聚氯乙烯的年产量接近3000万吨,在热塑性塑料产品中仅次于PE。它能和很多的制品共混赋予了聚氯乙烯多种多样的应用[1]。聚氯乙烯成本低,易加工,可采用多种工艺,比如砑光机挤出、注射模塑法塑料分散体方法,再加上其优越的物理化学性能和耐候性,使得聚氯乙烯在很多领域内的得到应用,比如管材轮廓、地毯、电缆绝缘、屋顶薄钢板、包装箔、瓶子药品生产等[2]。在这一世纪末,有许多问题出现。去年,塑料废品快速增长,造成了很大的环境问题,因此对已用聚氯乙烯的处理引起了公众的日益注意。在美国大约80%的废品被当作垃圾被掩埋掉,城市固体废弃物的垃圾掩埋成为了一个主要的方法。如果照此下去,在不远的将来垃圾掩埋将没有地方进行下去[3]。欧洲国家同样也面对着类似窘难的境地,因为可以利用的适宜地点是非常有限的[4]。因此垃圾掩埋越来被认为是最坏的处理垃圾废品的方法。通过焚化进行能量回收是另一种处理城市固体废物的方法[5]。但是由于不合适的设备和不相称的焚化条件,也会造成一些环境争议,这样也就增加了这些技术使用的公众阻力[6]。另外聚氯乙烯聚合物在热分解时回释放出大量HCl气体,还能形成有毒的二恶英和呋喃。因此试图加大这种设备的使用能力会遇到越来越大的阻力。回收利用可明显的分为化学回收和材料回收。化学回收就是把聚合物转变为短链化合物,以便在以后的聚合和其他的化学反应中重新利用[7]。化学回收又分为四个不同的工艺过程,裂缝、气化、氢化和高温分解。通过一些大规模的工厂的运作和有意义的调查,表明这种方法是非常有效的[8-10]。最后经济效益将决定未来每个回收工艺的应用。在很多年前塑料工业已经对生产后变成废品的材料进行循环利用了。这些经验也可以应用的处理经过生活消费后的废品。在重新回收塑料中最大的问题是废品中存在着许多不同种类的聚合物[11]。西欧的一个信息系统在塑料回收杂志上发表了一个统计分析,上面说900万吨的市政固体中有7.4%是塑料材料。图一表明了在所有的塑料垃圾中不同聚合物类型所占的比例。图1这些化合物的不相容性是加工困难和有这些不同聚合物生产出的产品机械性能低劣的最主要原因。因此很有必要把这些不同的聚合物分开以提高他们的价值。尽管其中有很多实际问题,但是塑料废品的分离还是取得了一些很有意义的进展[12,13]。由于不同聚合物密度不同,因此可以在一个旋液分离器中给它们离心力,这是分离这种聚合物可行的方法[14]。当然通过不间断的红外分析也可以分离出常见的塑料制品,有时在分离以前,需要把聚合物中的杂质比如沙子食物纸屑等去除掉。可以想象的是在将来,一条聚氯乙烯由建筑地到城市固体废弃物的回收线在运转。在一些国家通过政府制定新的规则可以加速这一天的到来。在德国《避免包装浪费法》就是第一部这样的立法[15],它的主要目的是通过材料的重复利用来减少大量的包装材料的浪费,另外使这些厂家和商人称道旧包装材料的责任,这样减轻了地方当局的担子,这样材料回收是减少城市固体废弃物的有效方法。2.聚氯乙烯废品的性能许多不同的等级和类别的聚氯乙烯可以用来生产板材承压管透明瓶子药品。因此根据不同的用途,需要添加不同的添加剂和稳定剂体系[16]。另外在整个高温加工过程和产品使用期内,聚合物要经受住热降解[17.18]。因此需要对聚氯乙烯废品的性能比如残余稳定性分子量添加剂含量进行有效的分析。2.1.热稳定性聚氯乙烯最大的缺点是有限的热稳定性,需要添加合适的热稳定剂,防止在加工和使用过程中脱去氯化氢和褪色。由于聚氯乙烯的热降解和光化降解如此重要,这方面的研究很早就开始了,我们可以查到许多关于这方面的文献和调查[19-21]。聚氯乙烯聚合物在较低的温度(大约100C)和光的影响下释放氯化氢是其分解的最基本的性质。首先这个反应生成双键,其后一个所谓的急流拉链状延伸到更远的HCl上,并且形成多烯序列。这些序列由共轭双键组成,键的平均长度为6到14nm,聚合物的颜色也变成黄色褐色,并且最后黑色。聚氯乙烯的热稳定性比它低分子量模型模拟系统低的多,因此链端比如连着烯丙基的氯,支链的三氯,头头键接结构,含氧键都被认为是不稳定的原因。发生在热分解过程中的机制还没有完全揭示出来。不过有一些理论不如自由基和离子机制理论被提出,还有在分解过程中在温度或者氧存在的情况下的反应机理等等。图2热稳定剂的主要作用是阻止加工期间的退化。当它们在聚合体中是它们和HCl反应,另外它们替换一些不稳定的氯原子,而这些氯原子更容易脱去HCl,因此就提高了热稳定性。这些稳定剂主要是一些有机金属化合物和长期有效的无机盐[22]。稳定剂有些是在制品加工过程中被使用掉,有的是在制品使用过程中被消耗掉。如果在它们重新利用前就被聚合掉那就大大的降低了稳定体系的效率。就这样的原因,用热的方法从聚氯乙烯中消除氯化氢似乎是最好手段。早期的研究反应的要求一个综合好的再生性、高精度和较低检测极限的系统。图3显示了近年来经常被用来做做这样的研究和比较合适的仪器[23]。图3聚氯乙烯样品(0.1克)放进分解容器内,要在等温条件下进行。分解容器内的变热载气(氮或空气)运输那氯化氢进入装满蒸馏水的电解池。HCl被连续的电导进行 测量 测量简历测量简历测量简历测量简历测量简历 。就得到了如图4的曲线。图4稳定聚氯乙烯的降解曲线显示一诱导期,但是没有包括HCl的。期间热稳定剂被消耗掉,然后开始脱去氯化氢。从诱发期的时间可以知道聚氯乙烯样品的剩余稳定性的重要信息,并且可以得到在材料回收中添加额外的热稳定剂是否必要。一些情况下,刚果红试验就可以完成这样的任务。2.2稳定剂和其他填料的分析如上所述,由于聚氯乙烯有限的热稳定性,要求在几乎所有的领域通过使用用热稳定剂。另外还需要其他的添加剂(例如抗光剂、补白、润滑剂来改善聚氯乙烯的性能和加工性能。目前,约三分之一的已使用聚氯乙烯是当中含有不同类型的调节剂[24]。因此在再使用之前需要得到聚氯乙烯碎片样品组成的详细情况。在图5中就给出了这样的例子,详细的描述和分析了增塑聚氯乙烯的屋顶薄钢板的组成[25]。图5第一步是一索氏抽提法粉末的抽出聚氯乙烯样品同二乙醚到隔离增塑剂。溶剂蒸发以后,就可以得到增塑剂的种类和使用量。剩下的材料然后被溶于THF(四氢呋喃)中,经过二次过滤就可以得到一些纤维,那些不能溶解在四氢呋喃中的化合物用离心机进行分离。剩余的物质可以分为添加剂和交联剂,可以通过燃烧变成灰烬。在剩余的溶解聚氯乙烯甲醇溶液滴加四氢呋喃,有沉淀析出,通过化学和分光镜的方法可以测量出聚合物的组成。通常情况下,聚氯乙烯样品(增塑剂、补白、聚氯乙烯它本身)主要部分的定量分析就可以给出足够的信息。对于定性分析,红外线光谱法特别合适,因为主要的添加剂、包括共同聚合体和抗冲改性剂在内的主要物质可以显示典型的红外光谱[26]。其他的光镜的方法也可以应用,不过样品的制备和设备的成本比较高。在参考27给出了非常具体和全面的聚氯乙烯化合物的定性分析和定量分析。最后,为聚氯乙烯化合物分析非常重要的部分,热稳定剂的选定是非常重要的[28]。热稳定剂的选定需要依据应用领域市场行情和当地的法律规定。铅稳定剂仍然是工程应用最广泛的聚氯乙烯热稳定剂,因为这个体系成本低,加工简单。它们在增塑聚氯乙稀电缆绝缘材料中能维持一定的电阻率,对于许多通用用途来说,铅稳定剂是首选的热稳定剂,其他重要的还有金属皂类化合物,比如钡镉钡锌钙锌皂类化合物,很多年来钡镉体系用于欧洲白色窗框,它有很好的耐候性能,但是由于镉在稳定剂或颜料中应用,仔细观看就发现了不少问题。目前,所有的厂商都选择了钙-锌稳定剂29,30两种系列[29.30]。它们用来生产食品包装水瓶药品,由于含又较低的有毒添加剂,所以它们的应用领域越来越大。有机锡类化合物是热稳定剂中又一个比较大的系列。他们的性质主要是因为烷基和酯基的存在,双烷基的链长越长,比如辛基锡化合物,毒性越来越低,因此可以应用到和食品接触的材料。同时一些含硫的有机锡稳定剂也常应用,因为它们可以提供优越的热稳定性和透明性。为得到稳定剂体系在聚氯乙烯中的详细信息,可以模仿一些古典的分析方法,比如无机化学中分离和分析离子的方法。真正有困难的是要找到使金属的阳离子变成那水相的简单可行的方法。为此,可以把聚氯乙烯样品溶解在环己酮溶液中,在相分离以后,在水中就可以得到不同的阳离子了。金属的分离也可以通过薄层色层分析法完成,这需要有机溶液的聚氯乙烯溶解在在四氢呋喃中[31]。有时,聚合物的沉淀还是必须的,剩余甲醇/四氢呋喃解也是有用的,它们用来识别不同的聚合物。另外一些分光镜方法需要对稳定剂进行分析[32]。红外光谱法仍然是现在最受欢迎的一种方法,因为它有很高的分辨能力,能够非常容易地检测出不同的聚合物来[33]。2.3分子量由于不同的加工和应用领域,工业中提出了K系数在55到80之间的商业标准[34]。K系数很早就在应用,它用来描述聚氯乙烯分子量,一直被厂商应用。这也就决定了在材料再循环中哪些加工技术能被使用,另外,在热光氧存在下聚氯乙烯链容易发生降解甚至交联,这样就导致了分子量和分子量分布的变化[22]。由于聚氯乙烯分子量和和加工性能及机械性能存在很大的相关性,因此很有必要对聚氯乙烯加工和使用过程中分子量的变化做详细的研究。最简单的测量分子量的方法就是测量聚氯乙烯的黏度。聚氯乙烯通常被溶于环己酮中,并根据DIN53726在250C进行测量。就实际应用,所得到的K系数大多数情况下就已经给出了足够用的数据和信息。使用那马克-豪温方程式,由得到的黏度植就可以计算出聚合物的分子量[35]。现在,那凝胶渗透色谱法,GPC,则是最流行的分子量的测量方法[21]。不不单单给出了聚合物的分子量,而且还给出了聚合物的分子量分布,通常情况下,四氢呋喃被用作溶剂,聚苯乙烯或聚氯乙烯作为标准校正曲线。但是在一些情况下,比如聚苯乙烯或聚氯乙烯没有恰当的得到溶解,或者由于以前的影响,例如在加热或光影响下发生交联,都会使数据失真。3.已用聚氯乙烯的热稳定性聚氯乙烯物品在几乎所有的生产和使用过程中都容易降解,这些阶段包括生产、存储加工、运输,并且结束使用。对聚合物的性能产生不利因素主要有加热、光、氧,并且机械应力。那么稳定剂体系需要在聚氯乙烯产品不同的生命期间不断消耗掉。图6就给出了时间关系曲线这样的例子,这个关系曲线是对用了15到20年的窗框碎片和工业窗框废品进行对比。工业废物的诱导时间比旧的聚氯乙烯碎片长的多。其他的一些研究给给出了硬聚氯乙烯性能的变化[36]。因此,聚氯乙烯废品的回收由于热稳定性的限制,需要在其中加入一些添加剂3.1热稳定剂的添加如上所述,聚氯乙烯物品的残余稳定性使得在材料的有效回收中必须添加稳定剂。为此而新的热稳定剂的使用遇到了一些困难。第一,必须要弄清楚存在于聚氯乙烯废品中的稳定剂,因为有些稳定剂体系与另一些体系并不兼容。例如,含硫的稳定剂在加工过程中与锡稳定剂一起使用,那么生产出来的产品在硫化铅格中出现暗斑,此外,热稳定体系的效率也大大降低。第二,由于重金属有毒,所以在未来的加工过程中,一些国家政府会禁用它们作为热稳定剂。如果这个情况发生了,加工公司就必须面对改造已有稳定剂的问题,如果材料回收还有需要,这个问题必须要解决。图63.2填料改良热稳定性通过使用共稳定剂是另一个可供选择的回收聚氯乙烯废料的有效方法,这样就不需要添加别的稳定剂了。由于碳酸钙能够和氯化氢反应,所以它就是这方面比较合适的共稳定剂。再次,由于白垩有着非常优越的特性,比如含有大量的碳酸钙,工业三废少成本低,加工过程无设备磨损,增强机械性能,表层能均匀分布等,使得它广泛被作为填料[16]。图7就给出了两个使用稳定剂后的聚氯乙烯样品的降解曲线,一个是添加了10%的碳酸钙,另一个没有添加。图7添加碳酸钙的聚氯乙烯样品经过较长的脱去氯化氢的诱导期后,表现了很好的热稳定性。在存在碳酸钙的样品中脱去氯化氢的比率也少的多[22]。通过对这两组样品紫外线光谱的分析,在这两种情况下,表现了相同的饱和序列,图8给出了这样信息。图8因此我们可以得出这样的结论,碳酸钙是作为共稳定剂在样品中起作用的,只有和其他的稳定剂在一起才能发挥作用,由于氯化氢和填料反应,所以就表现出较低的脱氯化氢比率[37]。3.3填料聚氯乙烯的加工有许多关于硬聚氯乙烯添加填料和没有添加填料的研究,以期得到碳酸钙作为热稳定剂填料的作用。我们用K系数为70的悬浮聚氯乙烯来作为实验材料,其中含有2%的有机锡稳定剂和1.8%的润滑剂,有一部分化合物用10%的用碳酸钙作为外衣的硬脂酸作为填料。聚氯乙烯粉末和外加填料在一转筒混合机中混合,聚合物材料被挤压成丸状,这样填料在聚合物中的分布就比较均匀。最后粒化后的聚合物用注射模塑法进行实验加工,然后就可以进行样品机械性能的测试了。对于硬聚氯乙烯来说,在变形速度一定和温度恒定的情况下得到的抗张抗拉强度的数据,无疑是最重要的机械性能参数[38]。有了这些数据,我们就可以知道该用什么材料生产什么材料,我们也可以知道生产出的材料的强度,还可以知道在露天和其他暴露的情况下材料的剩余机械强度。应力应变曲线通常是用它的抗张强度来表示的,经常用的标准是DIN53455.标准试件以一定的速率拉伸直至断裂。通过建立直角坐标系,我们就可以把拉伸强度断裂伸长率弹性模量表示出来[38]。通过冲击实验我们可以得到另外比较重要的机械性能参数,它就是聚合物的韧性。这种冲击实验所用的仪器是带有把试样击断的锤子的钟摆仪,我们参比的标准是DIN53735。表1就给出了用这些方法测量出来的机械性能,聚氯乙烯样品的拉伸曲线表明在屈服点它所表现出的可塑性性能。如果添加了碳酸钙,那么就表现出高的弹性模量,但是拉伸强度有点降低,断裂伸长率相当,冲击强度不管是否添加填料均一样。根据这些数据我们可以得到如果碳酸钙在聚合物材料中均匀分布,那么碳酸钙并没有使硬聚氯乙烯的性能降低。图9给出了这两种样品的降解曲线。填料聚氯乙烯的诱导期明显比没有添加填料的长的多,有意思的是在添加碳酸钙的稳定体系使用的后期氯化氢的分解率明显降低。图9和图7显示了添加填料和没有添加填料的聚合物不同的降解曲线。在现实可行的加工过程中同样我们可以得到这样的结论[37]。图9一些更多的调查,比如改变填料的含量,改变粒径等,可以得到填料在聚氯乙烯中作用更多的细节。我们可以得到这样的结论,碳酸钙含量越大,在混合物中稳定效果越大,但是有一个最大值,大约达到30%就不能再提高了,因为在聚合物热处理过程中剪切粘度不断变大,另外一个不利因素是随着碳酸钙含量的不断提高,聚合物的机械性能由可塑性逐渐变脆,断裂伸长率和冲击强度不断降低。3.4实例为了确认已提出的聚氯乙烯废料的再回收的概念,我们用三组不同的硬聚氯乙烯产品来进行比较。表2给出了所得到的结果。这三组样品按照上述三种不同的方法由聚氯乙烯原料进行加工,首先把大块的聚氯乙烯废料块制成粉末状材料,然后把其中的一部分树脂和10%的硬脂酸包复碳酸钙混合,实验样品由挤出和注射模塑得到。图10显示了含有10%碳酸钙的聚氯乙烯的弹性模量和拉伸强度。一直重复八次实验样品的机械性能变化的很小,在参考[39]中给出了聚氯乙烯碎片和碳酸钙加工过程中的成型条件[39]。在表3中把含有填料和没有含有的情况下聚氯乙烯经过三次加工后的机械性能做了对比。我们先前就讨论了填料的含量和相应机械性能的关系。对于材料1和材料3来说,这些数值相应的比材料2大些,材料2有比较低的下线值。表4显示了聚氯乙烯废料和加工试样的不同诱导期。和期望的一样,由于热形变处理的原因,诱导期变短了,但是通过对比改性前后可以看出白垩的热稳定效果。改性后的样品也显示了比较好的颜色等视觉效果。特别是稳定性比较低的聚氯乙烯碎片比如材料2和材料3如果要再使用的话,需要添加热稳定剂。这也可以从从材料2的转变时间曲线中明显观察到。即使不考虑最后一个加工周期的话,用白垩改性的样品比原始产品的热稳性能一样的窗框。对于管材,互挤法加工也可用于生产内部和外层用新树脂和已用材料构成的产品。4.最近关于材料回收的调查鉴于已用聚氯乙烯材料的化学回收扮演着如此重要的角色,对聚氯乙烯碎片材料的回收有很多报道。一些过程将聚氯乙烯溶解在有机溶剂中,比如,环己酮,乙基甲基酮或四氢呋喃[46],在废聚氯乙烯材料利用之前,必须对它进行精选的提取,这个过程还需要在加工过程中进一步完成[47-49]。图11聚合物中聚酯(比如聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯)和聚氯乙烯的分离是人们最大的关注点,对苯二甲酸已二醇酯的糖酵解可以生成己内酯低聚物。聚氨基甲酸酯和能互溶的机械性能相似的聚氯乙烯混合,可得到二酯[50]。聚氯乙烯和对苯二甲酸已二醇酯的分离可以根据它们各自的机械性能分离[51],也可以在其他的自动分离装置中进行分离。分离过程是建立在不同物质的检测的基础上的,比如通过X射线荧光或电磁的射线,另外一个鉴别在混合物中聚氯乙烯是通过特征聚氯乙烯进行分离。这种特征聚氯乙烯可通过聚烯烃的紫外线吸收法和不同的聚合物进行鉴别[52]。在参考[53]中给出了聚氯乙烯和对苯二甲酸已二醇酯混合物材料回收的具体细节,很有参考价值,它给出了聚氯乙烯在thf中的溶解,得到的聚合物的纯度的分析,还有性能的分析[54]。高度污染的聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯,比如含有6%的聚氯乙烯和1%的聚烯烃,可以让它在THF中进行溶解,然后分离出聚氯乙烯,接着分离出聚烯烃,分离聚烯烃要在乙基甲基酮和在醋酸戊酯/二甲苯混合物中进行。氢氧化钠的强碱溶液能破坏掉聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯的疏水性,但是在这种溶液中,聚氯乙烯的疏水性受到的影响却是很小。鉴于聚氯乙烯和聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯在溶液中不同的性能,我们可以通过泡沫浮选的方法来进行聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯和PCX离子的分离,这种方法要在碱性溶液中进行,并且,是要用精选的非离子型表面活性剂,这些精选的非离子型表面活性剂要经过不同的测试才能使用。在这项技术中,这两步都需要合适的实验条件,比如,试剂的浓度,温度,停留时间,都需要进行的设定,这样才能在不同组分的聚氯乙烯/聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯的混合物中进行对聚氯乙烯的分离。通过使用这种方法,可以在不同类别的聚氯乙烯和聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯混合物中对95-100%的聚氯乙烯和聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯进行分离[55]。另外一种回收聚氯乙烯/聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯混合物或者聚氯乙烯/聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯和聚乙烯混合物的方法是静电分离法[56]。以前就有大量关于在混合物中回收再利用聚氯乙烯的调查报告。最简单的方法是将要回收再利用的聚氯乙烯和纯净的聚氯乙烯原材料进行混合,为了制造管材,我们可以将已经使用过的聚氯乙烯油瓶和纯净的聚氯乙烯进行混合,生产出来的产品显示另外很好的加工性能和机械性能,这些性能取决于所加聚氯乙烯废品的含量。如果将聚氯乙烯和其他的聚合物进行混合,那将有很多的难度,因为绝大多数的聚合物和聚氯乙烯聚合物是不兼容的,因此也就显示了很差的加工性能和低劣的机械性能。在一些情况下,我们可以通过添加不同的兼容剂来完成兼容,解决这样的问题,我们举一个例子,在聚氯乙烯/PS体系中,高抗冲聚苯乙烯是很好的兼容剂,可以提高聚合物的机械性能。在这个例子中,还有在别的一些相似的例子中,兼容剂可以根据它的不同含量达到不同的兼容效果,大致呈正比关系,因为含量越大,兼容性越好[58]。通过使用扫描电镜研究混合物的形态学,我们也可以得到同样的结论,可以证明这些混合物的机械性能[59]。要回收再利用的管材聚氯乙烯或者是瓶子聚氯乙烯材料和聚氯乙烯原材料混合,然后生产管状或者是塑料瓶子,在这个过程中,粒子尺寸和稳定剂的添加决定着聚合物的机械性能和聚合物的均一性,通常来说,经过这样的加工以后,聚氯乙烯聚合物的模量,冲击强度并没有明显的变化,甚至在一些情况下冲击强度和可加工性能还能够得到提高,但是,它们的热机械性能却有很大的降低[60]。关于通过旋转浇铸法回收再利用聚氯乙烯的可能性也有一些研究。已加工过的聚氯乙烯和液氮进行研磨后混合,然后添加不同浓度的磺胺异噁唑,它是作为分散体使用的。通过对塑料分散体的粘度和凝胶化过程和聚变过程的研究,我们可以看到粘度和模量在凝胶化过程中随时间的不断变长不断得到提高。然而,用于回收利用的聚氯乙烯的塑料分散体只有在它们制备好不久马上投入使用才能显示比较好的加工性能[61]。在上述调查报告的基础上,已经有了一些聚氯乙烯回收再利用的工业概念,同时一些已经得到了工业生产,比如窗框、地毯、水瓶、箔片水泡、检验卡等[62.63]。对于窗框来说,调查显示至少需要九次的重复挤压工艺[64]。对于已经使用了20年到25年的旧窗来说,冲击强度、模量、维卡温度、热稳定性等一些性能都是一定的,调查也表明,这类回收的聚氯乙烯也适合进行再加工[65]。我们通过红外线和紫外线光谱学和扫描电镜等方法对聚氯乙烯瓶装材料在加工过程中180oc的温度下热冲击进行研究,瓶子样品在这样的温度下或多或少的受到一些影响,影响程度的大小主要取决于先前产品的分解、变色、挥发性组分的损失、在空气中过氧化物的形成等[66]。关于再回收利用聚氯乙烯瓶装材料机械性能的调查表明,使用后的废液在强度和延展度上有很大的降低。人们普遍认为之所以如此,主要是因为有杂质的存在,特别是聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯,即使它的浓度很低,在0.5%以下,但是聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯对机械性能的影响却是很大[67]。调查的结果表明利用回收材料制成的瓶子比用纯聚氯乙烯材料制成的聚氯乙烯瓶子更容易分解。如果我们把0.2%的聚乙烯和经过多次加工的瓶子薄片混合在一起,那么会由于聚乙烯杂质的影响加速它的降解过程。通过加入新的瓶子薄片材料来进行稳定,那么会非常有效的阻止降解,即使新材料的含量很低(比如30%)、经过了15次循环利用,都非常有效[68]。回收再利用的聚氯乙烯瓶子材料可以成功的应用到钙锌作为稳定剂的聚氯乙烯泡沫材料中,能够制造出质量比较好的产品。随着瓶子材料的数量的增加,并没有给聚合物带来明显的影响,比如说凝胶时间、熔化流变性、电镀性能,也没有提高它的热稳定性。泡沫混合可以通过挤出完成,生产出来的产品表面性能好、泡沫密度低[69]。泡沫聚氯乙烯材料可以用作管材的内层材料,在这样的情况下,要求的密度并不那么高,大约在0.5g/cm3[70]。在参考[71]中我们可以看到用于电缆绝缘材料的聚氯乙烯的回收。用于电缆和电线隔离材料的聚氯乙烯可以被溶解,并被分离出来。有报道曾经描述到用100%的回收再利用的聚氯乙烯做成的电缆成功的通过了初步的测验。已经有一些厂商用50%的回收再利用的聚氯乙烯材料制成的电缆用于新车的制造[72]。在德国自1990年以来就已经有了收集并回收聚氯乙烯地毯的行动了。在参考【73】中报道了聚氯乙烯材料手的第一次结果和经验。其他一些材料回收的概念是在包装材料和瓶子材料回收以后提出的,这些材料主要是用作内层共同挤出微孔型材的。这些产品拥有令人满意的密度、泡沫结构、色泽和表面性能。用100%的聚氯乙烯瓶子材料制成的泡沫产品并没有对它的性能产生多大的不利影响[74]。再循环超级市场托盘有很好的冲击性能,主要是因为托盘公式中有高的抗冲改性剂。我们经常提到的膨润法是一种比较简单的处理方法,并且对环境的影响较小。膨胀体系和膨胀性能可以用折射指数、膨胀度、平均粒度来表示[75]。由聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯纤维作为裹层的的聚氯乙烯的详细分析可以在报道中查到。聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯人造纤维可以在一个专门的机器中直接生成非纤维织物[76]。聚氯乙烯纸张混合物也可以用来回收。这些材料可以经过热处理加工成薄片用作聚氯乙烯保护层箔片[77]。5.化学回收除了材料的直接回收以外,还有一些别的方法,比如经过化学方法或者热处理不聚合物材料转变为低聚物聚合物。我们经常推荐的是在加热的碱性介质中脱去氯化氢。根据聚氯乙烯在存在氧气水蒸气或者催化剂的情况下使用热或者机械能降解,可以精选聚氯乙烯的挤出降解。降解出的氯化氢还可以被重新利用[78]。另外一种方法是在150oc到260oc的温度范围内在1-10MPa的压力下,在碱性溶液中进行有氧降解[79-81]。主要的产物是草酸和二氧化碳,它们的产量主要取决于反应条件和碱性浓度。最大的草酸含量是45%,氯的含量可得到42%,主要是以氯化氢的形式存在。在参考[82,83]的中给出了聚氯乙烯原来的选择。氯主要是以纯净盐酸或者食盐或者碳氢化合物的形式再回收利用的,在参考[83]中给出了最后调查的结论,并给出了一些有前途的加工工艺和技术。在法国Tavaux这个地方,已经有一家飞行工厂专门来回收聚氯乙烯。主要的生产工艺建立在以下的化学反应方程式:[-CH2–CHCl-]n+O2+2H2O→2HCl+4H2+4CO生成出来的氯化氢和合成气体可以用来生产新的聚氯乙烯材料。在图12中就给出了这个工厂生产该产品的主要工艺流程[84]。6.结论关于已经使用过的聚氯乙烯再回收利用的性能的研究表明了仔细分析混合物成分的重要性,特别是需要从城市固体废弃物分离的聚氯乙烯材料。在再加工以前对已使用过的聚氯乙烯的成分的研究,对其历史上的热处理加工和分子量有比较具体和详细的认识是非常有必要的。在聚合物中添加含有碳酸钙的稳定剂是回收聚氯乙烯材料的有效的方法。在聚合物中添加白垩,可以达到10%,并不会明显的改变聚合物的机械性能,同时可以显著的提高其热稳定性。已经有了很多关于回收塑料和再加工使用它们的方案。最有利的情况是单个材料类型的来源可以都被识别出,比如包装材料、瓶子、窗框等。这些材料可以很容易的转变为优质产品。同时,要建立起聚氯乙烯混合物回收的新概念,因为在将来,环境保护将在材料回收中扮演更加重要的角色[85]。为了达到聚氯乙烯废弃材料的工业化,就需要有一个不断的废品供应线,还需要技术的不断发展。另外非常重要的是必须要使回收材料制成的产品有广阔的市场。http://wenku.baidu.com/link?url=jzbkOPfigxTIsVEqc8_WlCeMpj2L1sLBmNI3YSy1Rjfq5J0tlRcFR06g7SaGxzxtWa_uzrYIVKMFelts-jw7zYOhX8MmJLv0u3f_yev2Xae1
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