自学考试英语语法精讲
《现代英语语法》是由李基安先生编写，全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会指定的全国
高等教育自学考试
教材
民兵爆破地雷教材pdf初中剪纸校本课程教材衍纸校本课程教材排球校本教材中国舞蹈家协会第四版四级教材
。
关于这门课程的考试要求，可参见该教程第425所附录的《英语语法自学考试大纲》。大纲是方向、目标，广大考生必须仔细了解。
英语语法是关于英语语言结构的理论知识。通过该课程的学习，学员能够比较系统地认识英
语从词，句到语篇的构造，从而提高他们应用英语的
规范
编程规范下载gsp规范下载钢格栅规范下载警徽规范下载建设厅规范下载
性。
在学习该教材时，学员普遍存在两种倾向：一是，由于该教材都是用英文编写，里面又涉及
很多专业术语，许多学员觉得高深、难懂；二是，有些学员认为，自己从学英语开始就在学
习英语语法，没有必要在这门功课上花太多的精力，所有的语法书都大同小异，自己稍做准
备就能对付过去。
其实，两种看法都失偏颇。现代语法的发展与传统语法已经存在比较明显的差异，例如：传
统语法认为，英语有九种（甚至十六种）时态，该教程则采取的是‘a system of two tenses and two aspects‘—-—-—-两时两体体系。另外对phrases, clauses 的概念也有不同的定义。书中提到的一些其他语言现象，如：外位[extraposition], 分隔[discontinuity], 分裂句[cleft sentence]
等都是一般语法书所不提及或者阐述不同。该教材也并非高深莫测，毕竟多数语言现象还是
我们日常英语学习中所耳濡目染的，只不过我们许多英语学习者没有考究过它们形成的理论
根据，来龙去脉而已。
所以，为了使自己的英语更加规范，让自己能用英语更准确、有效地传递信息、
表
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达思想，
英语专业的学生还是很有必要把这门课程学好。
现在我们就结合《现代英语语法》教材，近几年英语语法专业考试试题，讲述英语语法考试
中考生容易忽略的测试要点或难点。
我们先通过几道语法题来检测你现有的现代语法水平，接着探讨一下该教材的学习方法，最
后把教材各章的要点、难点归纳给大家。在整个讲解过程中，我们力争多采用教材里的素材
以及往年试题中的一些经典考题，以便学员在学习、归纳语法现象的同时使自己的备考收效
最大化。
先测试一下自己的现代语法水平(同时了解一下英语语法考试的题型、结构；每年考试形式
基本相同，有些部分稍有调整。为了节省篇幅，这里各部分只选取几个样题)
1
The Pre-course Quiz
I、单项选择题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分）
Choose the best answer from the choices given:
1. In the end, he __________.
a. got invited b. gets invited c. was invited d. was to be invited
2. Do what I tell you --__________!
a. or else b. or so c. and that d. and do
3. __________ , he managed to remain among the top 5% of his class. a. To work hard as he did b. Working hard as he did
c. Work hard as he did d. Worked hard as he did
4._____ there be life on Mars? (p171)
a. May b. Can c. Might d. Ought
5.Stay _____ have dinner with us, will you?(p263)
a. to b. or c. and d. here
6.You _____ be shocked at the news.(p168)
a. should well b. must well c. may well d. can well
7. You have to wait a minute, ______?
a. haven't you b. do you
c. don't you d. shouldn't you
8. Staying in hotel cost ________ renting a room in a dormitory for a week. a. twice as much b. twice as much as
c. as much as twice d. twice than
9. I don't think she meant_________ you. (p206)
a. hurt b. to hurt c. hurting d. be hurt
10. ___ I worked hard at school, I ___ this kind of work now. a. Had... wouldn't have done b. Had... wouldn't be doing c. If... wouldn't do d. If... wouldn't be doing
II.多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每题2分，共10分）
Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below:
a, the, any, some, all
1. __________ of us decides what to take into the future and what to leave behind. That's
2
why__________ arrival of the Year 2000 has become such a personal moment.
2. be, is, was, are ,were, will be, shall be, has, have had
a. She is one of these girls who _______ trouble running around.
b. This one of the many houses here which _______ destroyed in the earthquake.
3. seem, seems, me, I, mine
Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____. (p59)
4. less, less of, than, as, like
Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee. (p237)
III.填空题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分）
Fill in the blank with an appropriate coordinator or subordinator: 1. It was an island __________ name I have forgotten.
2. He carried his luggage all the way home, __________ was actually unnecessary. 3. He soon made it clear __________ he had asked for a meeting.
4. The police arrived, after __________ the situation became calmer.
Fill in the blanks with proper words:
5.I like Australia best _______ all the English-speaking countries. 6.I made a comparison _______ the major English speaking countries.(p251)
IV.改错题（本大题共8小题，每小题1分，共8分）
Correct errors in the following sentences:
1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading made a full man.
2. Go and get some fresh air! You were sitting here all morning.
3.The all of Paris welcomed the general. (p79)
4. I've got five brothers, and every of them is quite different from the others.
5. None of my parents are interested in my idea. (p344)
V.改写句子（本大题共14小题，每题2分，共28分）
Rewrite the following sentences as required:
1. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause: You sent my son an English-Chinese dictionary. Thank you very much.
2. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause: Twenty horses were put into the corral. They were to be trained for riding.
3.Combine the sentences into one that contains a relative clause:(p289)
3
My boss is a very considerate person. His predecessor was not a considerate person at all.
4.Rewrite the following sentence using whatever cohesive device is appropriate:
A: Is John trying to enter Harvard Law School?
B: No, I don't think John is trying to enter Harvard Law School. He hates lawyers.
5. Use discontinuity:
Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful than expected to children.
VI.名词解释（本大题共2小题，每小题2分，共4分）
Define the following terms with examples:
1. Non-finite verbs
2. Determiners
VII.简答题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分）
1. What are inherent adjectives?
2. Can HOW - exclamations be used to highlight the noun? If not, what can HOW - questions highlight?
Key to the pre-course quiz
I. 单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分）
1、a 2、a 3、b 4、b 5、c 6、c 7、c 8、b 9、b 10、b
II. 多项选择填空题（每小题2分，共10分，）
1. Each, the （共2分，一格1分） 2. have, were（共2分，一格1分） 3. seem, mine（共2分，一格1分） 4. less of, than（共2分，一格1分）
III. 填空题（每题1分，共20分） 1. whose
2. which
3. why
4. which
5. among
6.between
IV. 改错题（每小题1分，共8分） Correct errors in the following sentences:
1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading makes a full man.
2. Go and get some fresh air! You have been sitting here all morning.
4
3.The whole of Paris welcomed the general.
4. I've got five brothers, and each of them is quite different from the others.
5. Neither of my parents are interested in my idea.
V. 改写句子（每题2分，共28分）
1. Thank you very much for the English-Chinese dictionary you sent my son.
2. Twenty horses that were to be trained for riding were put into the corral.
3. My boss is a very considerate person, which his predecessor was not at all.
4. No, I don't think so. He hates lawyers.
5. Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful to children than expected.
VI. 名词解释（每题2分，共4分）
1. The non-finite verbs are verbs that are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord.
2. Determiners refer to words which are used in the pre-modification of a noun phrase and which
typically precede any adjectives that pre-modify the head word.
VII. 简答题（每小题2分，共10分）
1. Generally speaking, adjectives denoting inherent qualities characterize the referent of the noun.
e.g. A big house refers to a house whose size is big.
2. No, they can't. They can highlight the adjectives, adverb or verb.
一． 首先，仔细研读教材后面所附录的《高等教育自学考试英语语法自学考试大纲》，做
到学习重点、考试要求了然于心。
二． 由于教材涉及的术语较多，考试时所有的考题均用英文表述，学员必须熟记这些术语。
可参照书后《课程
内容
财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容
与考核目标》所列出的主要概念中英文对照。如：词素
（morphemes），词缀法(affixation), 修饰性状语(adjunct) ，评注性状语(disjunct)等。 三． 对于每个概念，术语，都要做到能用简单的英语解释，最好能用书中的定义进行解释。
语法考试中就有一部分要检查考生对概念的理解及记忆。如：（1）Morpheme(p4): A
morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit
in grammatical hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of
analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed ―morph‖ which
realizes the morpheme.(词素是语法的最小区别性单位,即最低一级的语法单位.词
素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.词素是抽象的形式成分，在不同的环境中由若干不
同的形素来体现) （2）Mass nouns(p57): Those nouns that can not take plural
forms are mass nouns, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有
复数形式的名词叫物质名词)
四． 在理解的基础上，熟记教材上的例句。从以往的试卷分析来看，很多考题就是教材上
的原句或略作变动。例如：在全国2003年4月高等教育自学考试英语语法试题第?.
5
多项选择填空题(本大题共8小题，每小题2分，共16分)中，几乎所有的题目均能
从书中找出：
Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below:
21. bank, bunch, congregation, pack, series（P65） A. a _____ of musicians
B. a___ of lectures
22. board, bunch, choir, packet, party（P66） A. a ______ of guests
B. a______ of keys
23. is, are, was, were, will be, shall be（P344） Some money _____ carried to the spot and all the food and everything else _____ ready for the
picnic.
24. seem, seems, me, I, mine（P59）
Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____.
25. less, less of, than, as, like（P237）
Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee.
26. more of, many of, much of, than, as, like（P236） John is as _____ a fool _____ Bill.
27. be, is, was, are, were, will be, shall be
A. That she is still alive ______ sheer luck.
B. Neither his oral statement nor what he wrote _____ true.
28. have, has, had, will have, shall have（P346） A. She is the only one of her family who ______ trouble making up the mind.
B. This is the only family in the community who ____ different opinions while making up the
mind.
五． 每一章后面设计的练习题也非常重要，学员要做到每一题都能够理解，作答正确。许
多题目被用作以往的考题，将来的试卷同样会从中选择不少题目。
六． 勤于动手，加强实践。该教程共分十六章，学习时可以把每一章节的重点概念摘录出
来，把重点例句归纳出来，供自己复习巩固。只有这样，才能让自己掌握好各章节的
精华。我们不主张大家去找别的语法练习来训练，因为采取不同的语法体系编辑的练
习题有可能差距很大。教材上的例句及练习题稍作变动就可以产生无数的新语法题，
足以让同学得到充分地训练。
七． 善于请教，多方求索。学员对自己学习过程中弄不清楚的问题，可以与别的学员共同
商讨，或请教老师。互联网也是一种很好的助学手段，但不要在那上面花太多的精力，
因为那里的东西庞杂而良莠不齐。只要通过 ?www.google.com‘ 或 ?www.baidu.com‘，
输入你想搜寻的内容的关键词, 如：‘自考语法’；‘语法考试’等，它们就会为你提
供大量的网站或网页供你登陆或浏览。 八． 学会归纳、总结。学习任何东西都应该多动脑筋。死记硬背得来的东西往往遗忘也很
快，理解基础上熟记的东西才能长时间为主人服务。为什么“A book is on the desk..”
不对而“ On the desk is a book.” 正确；为什么“There is a bus over there.”是存在句，
“There comes the bus”是倒装句；什么情况下 ?family‘ 之后的动词用复数，什么情
况下 ?family‘ 之后的动词用单数。这些只有在理解的基础上，通过归纳总结才能真
正牢记住。
6
1. Present the grammatical units that form a hierarchical order.
(指出构成层次结构的语法单位.)
Answer: The grammatical units that form a hierarchical order are explained and shown
as follows:
Higher | A sentence consists of one or more clauses
| A clause consists of one or more phrases
| A phrase consists of one or more words
Lower | A word
From the macro-grammatical point of view, we can come to a hierarchical structure
as:
Higher | A text consists of one or more sentences
| A sentence consists of one or more clauses
| A clause consists of one or more phrases
| A phrase consists of one or more words
| A word consists of one or more morphemes
Lower | A morpheme
英语句子的结构层次是：分句(clauses)、词组(phrases)、单词(words)，图示如下：
高级层次 句子(由一个或多个分句组成)
分句(由一个或多个词组组成)
词组(由一个或多个词组成)
低级层次 词
图1.1语法单位的层次(Leech等，1982：27)
如果从语义的角度来考虑，单词以下还可再分为词素(morphemes)；句子以上还有更大的语
言单位，即把句子按一定逻辑规则组织起来的语篇。所以，从超语法的角度来看，语法层次
结构可以如下图所示：
高级层次 语篇(由广个或多个句子组成)
句子(由一个或多个分句组成)
分句(由一个或多个扣组组成)
词组(由一个或多个词组成)
词(由一个或多个词素组成)
低级层次 词素
7
图1.2 扩大的语法层次结构图
Morphemes词素 (Terms: morpheme, morph, allomorph, free morpheme and bound
morpheme)
（注：此部分内容的学习可以借鉴‘词汇学’的相关内容，然而必须注意两门课程描述
的不同点。）
什么是词素(morpheme)?词素是语法的最小区别性单位，即最低一级的语法单位。
词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素(morph)。词素是一种抽象形式的成分，在不同的环
境中一个词素可以由若干个不同的形素体现，如英语中的复数词素可以表现为／s，z，iz
／。
某一词素在不同的环境中可以用不同的变体或词素变体(allomorph)表示。所谓词素变体是指词素的非区别性变体，几个不同的变体一起构成一个词素。
词素又分为自由词素和粘附词素。自由词素(free morpheme)是指本身具有完整意义，可以独立使用的词素。它可以是简单的单词，如boy，girl，do，so等，也可以是派生词的词根，如im-polite，self-ish等。自由词素具有较强的构词能力。
粘附词素 (bound morpheme)是指没有完整意义不能独立使用的词素。粘附词素只表示
一种附加意义或语法意义，这种词素不能单独存在和使用，只有粘附在其他词素(主要是自由词素)上才能表示出它的意义。粘附词素的主要功能是在构词中充当词缀，如
unfriendliness中的un-，-ly，-ness等。
3.Finite clauses and infinite clauses (限定性分句与非限定性分句,定义参见下面
的简答题部分)
注意这里分句的概念与传统语法的区别，特别是非限定性分句。 Finite Clauses
(1)名词性分句
What he said was incredible.
(2)关系分句
This is one of the best books I‘ve ever read.
(3)状语分句
If I were in your shoes, I wouldn‘t quit.
Non-finite clauses：
(1) 非限定性名词性分句：
She didn‘t know what to say．
(2)非限定性关系分句：
The man standing by the window is her brother.
(3) 非限定性状语分句：
Published ten years ago，this is still the best dictionary． 二、
1. morpheme (参见第一部分测试题)
parsing：Breaking a sentence into smaller components for analysis
and then grouping them into various classes in a systematic way.
把一个句子中的各种词按语法范畴给出名称一如主语、宾语、动词、性、
8
数、格等一叫做句子成分分析(parsing)。
Define the complex sentence
The complex sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause
that are joined together by subordinating one to another．[复杂句是用
从属连词(如if, when, though等)连接的一个以上分句的句子.]
三、
1. There are ( ) morphemes in “gunfighter”.
A. two B. three
C. four D. one
2. In “He downed his beer and punched me on the nose. ” “downed” belongs to ( ) . (P13)
A. backformation B. clipping
C. conversion D. blending
3. Suffixes basically change ( ) .
A. word meaning B. word class
C. nothing D. word formation
4. The prefix“uni-” means ( ) .
A. without B. self
C. false D. one
Key: 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. D
1. In terms of which three factors are words classified?
The three factors are: the environment where words occur, their internal
structure and their meaning.
Define the finite clauses and the non-finite clauses.
The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as
predicates．The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects
unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms．(限定分句是主语加限定动词作谓语的
分句。非限定分句是省略主语而动词以非限定形式出现(主语省略是因为其前面或
后面已有主语。)
The four major types of sentences are declaratives，interrogatives，
imperatives and exclamatives．These four types are respectively associated
9
with giving information，requiring information，requiring actions and expressing the speaker‘s impression of something．英语句子四大类型为陈述
句，疑问句，祈使句和感叹句；这四种句型分别表示提供信息，寻求信息，要求动
作进行和表达说话者的情感.
2. Explain the conditions in which we need to use non-assertive words in
positive statements and assertive words in questions. (解释在肯定句中使用非肯定词和在疑问句中使用肯定句的情况。)
When a positive answer is expected, assertive words can be used in
questions, such as: Would you like some more coffee? Is somebody waiting
for me?
And in affirmative sentences in which there are negative import, if-clauses,
putative should-clauses, and comparative clauses, non-assertive words can
be used, such as:
He is too young to take any job.
If anyone calls me at this moment, it must be Xiao Zhang.
It‘s odd that the hero should say anything like that.
He‘s better than anyone else in this company.
疑问句中如期望肯定回答,可用肯定词，在含有带否定含义的词，If-分句,should 推定分句,比较分句中也可用非肯定词.
3．Explain the difference between a tag question with a final rising tone
and one with a final falling tone．(解释附加疑问句结尾升调与降调的区别。) With a rising tone，the question expresses the speaker‘s neutral expectation of the hearer‘s response and invites the hearer to verify the
truth of the proposition in the statement．With a falling tone，the
speaker asks for the hearer‘s confirmation of the statement．It can be
regarded as similar to an exclamation．(念升调，附加疑问句的说话者对对方 的回答不是很确定；念降调，说话者期望对方证实他的陈述，有点类似于感叹句。) Examples:
Lovely weather, isn‘t it?
(Seeing the student‘s ID) You are a student, aren‘t you?
以上两句，都应该念降调。
另外，在附加疑问句中，HAVE一词也是常考的重点：
You have heard me, haven‘t you? (Auxiliary ?have‘)
Mary has to live on her own, doesn‘t she?
Tom has coffee with milk, doesn‘t he?
(In the sense of ?possess‘, ?own‘, etc.) You have a big house, don‘t / haven‘t you?
4．Commands
1) Be patient. (Command)
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2) You be patient. (Emphatic effect, or to light a contrast)
3) Do be patient. (To reinforce a command)
4) Be patient, please! (To smooth away abruptness)
5) You be patient, please! (This sentence is incorrect!)
So the following sentences are also commands:
1) Someone take out the rubbish.
2) Anybody help him!
3) Everyone freeze!
二、
1. Alternative questions: Those questions that suggest two (or more) alternatives and
usually imply that one of them could be true.
2. How-exclamations: Exclamations that are led by the adverb ?how‘. It highlights the adjective, adverb, or verb in exclamations.
三、
1. You have to wait a moment, ______?
A. haven't you B. do you
C. don't you D. shouldn't you
2. "Mary wasn't in the reading - room, was she?" "_________."
A. Yes, she wasn't B. No, she was
C. Yes, she was D. She wasn't
Key: 1. c 2. c
1. What are the verbs which transferred negation often occurs with?
What is their shared semantic feature?(转移否定经常与哪些动词
同现?它们有什么共同的语义特征?)
The verbs which transferred negation often occurs with are：
think，believe，suppose，imagine and expect．They are the verbs
that express ―opinion‖．(转移否定经常与think，believe，suppose，
imagine和expect等动词连用。这些动词都是表示“意见”的语义。)
2. What are the two major types of exclamations?(感叹句的两大类
型是什么?)
The two major types of exclamations are WHAT—exclamations and
HOW-exclamations．The former is followed by a noun phrase；the
latter is followed by an adjective or adverb．感叹句分为WHAT-
感叹句和HOW-感叹句。前一种后接名词词组，后者接形容词或副词。
1. You‘d rather we didn‘t go there,_______
2. I don‘t think he will come,________?
3. They must have lost their way,_____?
4. Let‘s talk about it later,_____?
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5. Everyone is here,________?
Key: 1.hadn‘t you 2. will he 3. mustn‘t/ didn‘t they
4. shall we 5.isn‘t here/aren‘t they
The functions of noun phrases: In function, a noun phrase can play
such grammatical roles as subject, object, complement, modifier and
even adverbial. 名词词组的功能，可以作主语、宾语、补语、修饰语（a
tea table），有些的甚至可以作状语(yesterday, last week)。
Noun classes
名词可以以多种方法分类,如具体名词(table, water)与抽象名词
(happiness, hatred),可数名词(table, girl)与不可数名词(water,
money),有生物名词(boy, monkey)与无生物名词(table, water)等.但名词
通常按以下方式分类:
名词-----|专有名词Proper nouns
(nouns) |可数名词----------|普通名词(common nouns)
(c. nouns) |物质名词(mass nouns)
我们在可数名词和物质名词中还可以再划分具体名词和抽象名词:
名词--|专有名词
|普通名词--|可数名词--|具体名词(concrete nouns)
(common n.)| |抽象名词(abstract nouns
|物质名词--|具体名词(concrete nouns)
|抽象名词(abstract nouns)
3.缩略词：加-’s，-s，双写或零形式复数，首字母缩略词，
加-?s或-s：
MP(议员) MP’s／MPs
POW(战犯) POW’s／POWs
VIP(要人) VIP’s／VIPs
laser lasers
缩略词加-s，双写或用零形式复数：
缩略词加-s
Dr．(医生) Drs．
hr(小时) hrs．(或hr．)
yd．(码) yds．
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Yr. (年) yrs．
双写:
ex．(例子) exx．
gal．(加仑) gall．
1. (行) ll．
p．(页) pp
或用零形式复数
ft．(英尺) ft
kg．(公斤) kg．
km．(公里) km
min．(分) min．
sec．(秒) Sec
Proper noun: Proper nouns are nouns referring to specific person,
place or thing,such as Smith, Mark (persons), Washington D.C., London
(places), NATO, United Nations (things)(专有名称是特指人,地方或事
物的名词)
Mass noun: Those that can not take plural are mass nouns, such as
butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有复数形式的名词叫物质名
词)
Unit noun: It is also called "partitive", is a very special class
of words that is used to specify the quantities measures and shapes
of the modified noun such as: piece, batch, bunch, item, etc. (单
位名词亦称 ―部分词‖用于说明所修饰名词的量、大小和形状等)
Foreign plurals：They are words borrowed from some other languages
which still take their original forms of plural，Most often，they
are from-Latin，French，Greek：alumna--alumnae，index--indices，
plateau--plateaux，analysis—analyses，etc．(外来词复数是指从外语
中借来尚保持原来复数形式的复数名词，多是拉丁语、法语和希腊语等)
1. _________ plastics are made in this chemical plant.
A. Many kind of
B. Many kinds of
C. Many kinds
D. Many kind
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2. "Jack has just moved into a new house."
"Did he have to buy ________for it?"
A. many new furniture
B. much new furnitures
C. much new furniture
D. many new furnitures
3. Michael took _______ as to what he should do.
A. his friend's advise
B. his friend's advises
C. his friend advice
D. his friend's advice
Key: 1. B 2. C 3. D
Collective noun: These are generally countable nouns, but even in
the singular they refer to groups of people, animals or things, such
as family, class, team, government, committee, etc. (集体名词一般
是可数名词,但就是单数,也指人, 动物或事物的群体)
singular invariables: They are proper nouns like country names,
personal names and mass nouns like those denoting sciences,
subjects, diseases, and games. For example: the United States，
the United Nations，Black，Jones，classics，physics，bronchitis，
bowls，et。．(单数名词指的是某些国家名称，人名和表示学科、疾病和运
动项目等形式上有以—s结尾的名词，一般用作单数)
plural invariables：They are 1)names of tools and articles of dress
consisting of two equal parts：binoculars，compasses，jeans，shorts，
etc．2)some collective nouns：cattle，people，police，
etc．3)geographical names of mountain ranges，waterfalls，groups of
islands：the Rockies，the Balkans，Niagara Falls，etc．4)other nouns
ending in-s：archives，arms，etc．(复数名词指由两部分构成的工具或
服饰；某些集体名词；山脉、瀑布、群岛等地理名词以及其他以-s结尾的
名词，用作复数)
Supply the appropriate unit noun from the list below:
company collection troop herd bundle drop piece
ray swarm can school pack fleet crew
1. a ______ of ships 2. a ______ of lies
3. a ______ of firewood 4. a ______ of whales
5. a ______ of sailors 6. a _____ of bees
7. a ______ of tourists 8. a _____ of crude oil
9. a ______ of cattle 10. a _____ of music
11. a _____ of monkeys 12. a _____ of coins
13. a _____ of blood 14. a _____ of sunshine
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Key:
1. fleet 2. pack 3. bundle 4. school
5. crew 6. swarm 7. company 8. can
9. herd 10. piece 11. troop 12. collection
13. drop 14. ray
1. The constraints that the double genitive is subject to:
The second noun in the double genitive almost always refers to persons，
never to objects，and the first noun usually has indefinite reference
(typically premodified by the indefinite article) and the second noun is
always definite．(双重属格的第二个名词指人，不指物，第一个名词不确指，通
常用不定冠词，第二个名词必须确指)
a window of the house‘s / a page of the newspaper‘s
the friend of that reporter‘s /the friend of a teacher‘s
[以上表达均有错误！]
集体属格
集体属格是指把’s加在后位修饰词组或并列名词词组后面的属格，如： someone else‘s car，an hour and a half‘s test(一个半小时的测试)，a week or so‘s break(一个星期左右的休息)。
但集体属格不用于含有后位修饰分句(限定分句和非限定分句)的名词词组中：
* the lady living next door‘s hat
* the children killed in the war‘s pictures
3. Genitive :
Generally, of-phrase is not used with first names, but would be acceptable with full
names:
* The bike of Tom
The car of George Bush
4. Determiners
The pre-determiners or central determiners are mutually exclusive:
* all half the employees (two pre-determiners)
* all the his employees (two central determiners)
‘’‘’
All Beijing was excited at the news of winning the bid.
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The whole of Beijing was excited at the news.
* Whole Beijing was excited at the news.
* The whole Beijing was excited at the news.
* The all Beijing was excited at the news.
1. Determiners(什么是限定词)?
Determiners refer to words which are used in the premodification of a noun phrase
and which typically precede any adjectives that premodify the
headword．(限定词是指用于各词词组的前位修饰语的词，限定词放在修饰中心词的 形容词前面)
2.Genitives
Forms or construction used to denote possession, measurement or source.
Example: John‘s car; a moment‘s digression; the resistance of Iraq
Jack is ____________________.
a. a friend of a doctor‘s b. the friend of a doctor‘s
c. the friend of the doctor‘s d. a friend of the doctor‘s
This is ________________________.
a. the passport of John b. the passport of John‘s
c. the passport of John Smith d. the John passport
Key: 1. d 3. c
What are generic reference and specific reference(什么是类指和特指)?
Generic reference and specific reference are the two uses of
articles．Genetic reference indicates the whole species or kind，while
specific reference，specific one or thing.[类指和特指是冠词的两个用法。
类指指事物(或人)的整个种类，而物特指则是某一具体的事物(或人)]
2. Under what general circumstances do we prefer genitive to of-phrase and vice
versa?(在什么情况下用属格不用of-词组，什么情况下用of-词组，不用属格?)
When nouns refer to people，and the relation between the nouns is one of
definition，classification，etc，genitives are preferred，when nouns
refer to inanimate，lifeless objects，and the head words of noun phrases
are classifying adjectives, of—phrases are preferred．(当名词指人，或名
词之间属于定义或归类关系时，用属格；而当名词指无生物，或中心词是the+形
容词时，用of-词组)
examples:
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men‘s clothes / the teacher‘s book
the color of the car / the struggle of the exploited
1. Why does this book adopt the system of two tenses and two aspects?
The reason is threefold. First of all, the traditional system identifies
tense forms on the basis of reference to time distinctions, in which case
tense is basically equivalent to time. Secondly, tense and aspect are
independent grammatical categories, the former being inflectional and the
latter analytical. And thirdly, from the pedagogical point of view, the
new system contributes to English learning by simplifying grammatical
categories.
本书采用两时两体体系,理由有三。
第一，传统语法是以时间为参照划分英语时态的，而在处理像The train leaves at eight tomorrow morning和 They would have heard the news last night
等句子时遇到麻烦，因为在语言中形式与意义是不常等同或对应的。我们将英语
的时分为两时——现在时和过去时，是基于对英语形态的考虑。像汉语这样没有
词汇屈折变化的语言根本就没有时。
第二，时（tense，）和体（aspect）是两个彼此独立的语法范畴。前者基于词汇
的屈折变化，而后者基于结构分析。由于时与体经常合用，所以导致时体不分，
时指动作发生的时间而体标记动作发生的状态或方式。 第三，从教学角度上看，新的时体体系简单易学，还可以让学生懂得一种意义可
以用不同的形式表示，一种形式也可表示不同的意义。
2. Why do most contemporary English grammarians adopt a two-tense
system?(当代英语语法家为什么采用两时体系?)
Because tense is a verb form．Morphologically，only present tense and
past tense have their forms of verbs．A language (such as Chinese)which
has not verb forms has no tense.(因为时态是动词的形式。从形态上讲，
英语只有现在时和过去时，动词才有变化形式，所以英语是两时体系。一门
语言(如汉语)如没有动词的变化形式就没有时态。)
3. Why is the past tense often used for politeness?(过去时为什么常用
来表示客气的语气?)
Because the past tense can make a question or a statement or a
suggestion less direct．It is more polite to use the past tense on
the part of the speaker．(因为过去时使疑问句、陈述句或建议不直接提
出，显得委婉，所以说话者觉得它比现在时更利于表达客气的语气。)
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非进行体动词不用于进行体中
非进行体动词也可再分为关系动词(如be，have，own，equal，weigh，等)，感知动词(如see，smell，taste，等)和态度动词(如think，wonder，guess, like等) e.g. *I am liking the car.
*He isn‘t thinking that is right.
但在表达动作的短暂性、逐渐增加或减少时也使用进行体形式：
You are being impolite.
Mary is resembling her mother increasingly as she grows older.
The milk is tasting worse.
Since-分句一般不用于否定句：
We haven‘t seen each other since 1989.
* It‘s ten years since I didn‘t see him．
* He‘s had several jobs since he wasn‘t a student．
现在进行体表示将来时间指的是人的行为和努力，别的情况不能用现在进行体：
* It‘s raining tomorrow．
* The trees are losing their leaves soon．
1. Tense: Any one of the inflected forms in the conjugation of a verb that
indicates the temporal location of an event or a state of affairs.
时态指示时间如过去、现在动词的各种曲折变化形式的任何一种 2. Aspect: aspect reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or
experienced with respect to time.(反映动词的动作在时间上被识别和经历
的方式。)
1. Five and five ________________ ten.
a. make b. made c. will make d. is make
2. The weather ________ very cold as soon as the night fell in that
mountainous area.
a. was to be b. was going to be
c. was d. was getting
Key: 1. a 2. b
Explain the relationship between tense and time． (时态与时间有何区别?) Time and tense are not the same thing；time is concept and tense is a
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grammatical device．Different tenses can express the same period of
time，such as the present．(时间与时态不是一回事；时间是一种概念而时态
是一种语法手法。同一个时段(如现在)可以由多个不同的时态表示。)
If tense is related to time, what is aspect related to? (如果时与时间
有关，体又与什么有关?)
When tense points to the temporal location of an event or a state of
affairs，aspect“reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded
or experienced with respect to time．”时与一个事件或状态的具体时间有关，而体则“指与时间有关的动作发生的方式”。 Correct the following sentences:
1. Have you had a good time last week?
2. The children ran out to play after they finish their homework.
3. It rains tomorrow.
4. He can't go on holiday because he broke his leg.
5. When Father came back, we have already gone to bed.
1. Did you have a good time last week?
2. The children ran out to play after they (had) finished their homework.
3. It will/is going to rain tomorrow.
4. He can't go on holiday because he has broken his leg.
5. When Father came back, we had already gone to bed.
1. Get-passive and be-passive
Get-passive is far less popular than be-passive. The reasons are:
first, get-passive is generally avoided in forma syle, and even in
informal English it is far less frequent than be-passive. Second,
semantically, get-passive is typically used to refer to an event,
rather than a state; to denote the consequence rather that the rocess,
of an event; and to lay emphasis on what happens(usu. Unfavorably)
to the subject as a result of the event, rather than who actually
causes the event.
get-型被动态的使用不如be-型被动态广泛，在正式语体中，通常避免使用
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get-型被动态，即使在非正式语体中，get-型被动态也不如be-型被动态使
用率高。从语义上看，get-型被动态常用于表示突然发生、未曾料到的事
件(或事故)，而非一种状态；它强调动作所产生的结果，而非动作本身；
它强调动作对主语的影响(通常是不利的)，而非动作的执行者。
e.g. The children got punished.
*Can the kite get seen now?
*The play got written by Cao Yu.
2. The difference between regular passive and the pseudo-passive:
A pseudo-passive sentence is passive in form but active in meaning.
Its ed-participle is adjectivalized so that it becomes a subject
complement. As an adjective, it can occur in a comparative
construction, with a variety of prepositional phrases other than
by-phrase, and with other link verbs besides be and get.
真假被动态的一些主要区别：假被动态是被动的形式，主动的意义，其中的
-ed分词已经形容词化，在“主语一动词一补语”(SVC)结构中作主语补语(即
表语)。作为形容词，—ed分词可有比较等级形式。除了-by词组，-ed分
词可与许多别的介词搭配使用；除了be和get，—ed还可与别的连系动词
连用：become，feel，look，seem，remain。
e.g. She became more annoyed at his negligence at work now.
动词+介词
这一结构通常叫做介词动词(prepositional verb)
然而“动词+介词”结构在形式上易与“动词+介词词组”相混淆：
They finally arrived at the station．
… the conclusion．
The police carefully went into the tunnel．
… the case．
不可转换成：*The station was finally arrived at．
但可以说The conclusion was finally arrived at．
不可转换成：*The tunnel was carefully gone into by the police．
但可以说：The case was carefully gone into (by the police)．
1．Voice: A property of verbs or a set of verb inflections indicating the
relation between the subject and the action expressed by the verb.
(态)是表示主语和动词之间的主动或被动关系的动词形式，英语动词有两种态：主动
态和被动态。例如：People almost all over the world speak English.(主动态)；
English is spoken almost all over the world．(被动态)。(see 6．1)
2．Mood: A set of verb forms or inflections used to indicate the speaker's
attitude toward the factuality or likelihood of the action or condition
expressed. In English the indicative mood is used to make factual statements,
the subjunctive mood to indicate doubt or unlikelihood, and the imperative
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mood to express a command.
语气用来强调说话人对表达的行为或条件的真实性或可能性所持有态度的一系列动
词形态或变化形式。在英语中陈述语气(式)用于描绘真实的陈述，虚拟语气(式)则用于强调怀疑或不可能，而祈使语气(式)则用来表达一个命令.
(式)是表示语气的动词形式，英语动词有三种式：陈述式、祈使式和虚拟式。例如：
We study English hard．(陈述式)；Let‘s play chess tonight(祈使式)；He ordered that a11 the employees be there at 8 sharp tomorrow．(虚拟式)。
1． What are the voice constraints?
The voice constraints refer to grammatical constraints, semantic
constraints and stylistic constraints.(语态限制有：语法，语意及文体限制)。
2． be-passive(be-型被动态)：The passive made up of ?auxiliary be + v-ed‘
由“助动词be的一定形式+及物动词的-ed分词”构成的被动态叫be-型被动态，
例如：The book was written by Hamilton.
3. be-subjunctive (be-型虚拟式): The be-subjunctive is formally marked by
the use of the base of the verb; that is , the verb invariably occurs
in the base form free from the concord constraints with the subject and
from the tense agreement with other verbs.不管主语是什么人称,一律以
动词原形表示的虚拟式,例如:It is important that the boss handle it in
person.
4. What are the three mood forms:
The three mood forms are: indicative, imperative and subjunctive.
could可用来泛指过去的一般“能力”，但通常不能用其表示过去做某一特定事
情的“能力” (其否定形式couldn‘t／could not除外)。要想表示过去做某一具
体事情的“能力”，可用be able(to)，manage，succeed等：
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* They worked hard and could pass the test．
They play hard but still couldn‘t win the game．
* He ran fast and could catch the first bus.
He ran fast and managed to catch the first bus．
表示推测意义的may很少用于疑问句，这时通常用can代替：
Can there be life on Mars?
(* May there be life on Mars?)
Where can he be found?
(* Where may he be found?)
have to 与 have got to
have to 和have got to的区别：
a．have to比较正式而have got to属于口语体
b．have got to很少用过去时形式
c．have got to没有非限定动词形式，所以不能说：* will have got to，*
to have got to，* having got to而须说：will have to，to have to，
having to
d．have to往往表示客观上的必要性而have got to却通常表示主观上的必
要性，与must同义。
dare
a. 情态助动词dare意为“胆敢”，语法作用与need相近，通常用于非肯定语境：
Dare you jump down from the top of that wall?
b. 主要用作主动词, 后面可以跟一个不带to的不定式：
He does not dare(to)say that．
I wonder how he dares(to) do such things．
You have never dared to challenge him，have you?
Modal auxiliary: One of a set of English verbs, including can, may, must,
ought, shall, should, will, would and etc., that are characteristically used
with other verbs to express mood or tense.
情态助动词一组英语动词中的一个，包括 can、may、mast、ought、shall、should、
will和 would等，其特点是与其它动词联用表示语气或时态 1. A new theory __________ before it can be put into practice.
a. must be tested
b. be tested
c. can be tested
d. to be tested
2. Where _______ the boss be found?
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a. can b. may
c. dare d. ought
1. What are the two major semantic categories of modal auxiliaries?
情态助动词从语义来看分为哪两大类?
The predictive and non-predictive(also termed ?epistemic and non epistemic‘)
推测性意义和非推测性意义
2．The three major semantic components of ?can‘ are: possibility, ability and
permission.
推测性意义的possibility(可能性)和非推测性意义的ability(能力)和permission(许可) Rewrite the following sentences by using modal auxiliaries:
1. I am sure you have left your dictionary in the dormitory.
2. They were obliged to sell their car to pay for the medicine.
Key:
1. You must have left your dictionary in the dormitory.
2. They had to sell their car to pay for the medicine.
The non-finite verbs are so called because they are not marked for tense or
for subject-verb concord. There are three types of non-finite verbs: infinitive,
-ing participles and –ed participles.
英语动词形式按其在句子中所起的作用可分为限定动词和非限定动词。两者的主要区别
在于：非限定动词一是没有“时”的标志，二是不必在人称和数上与主语保持一致。非
限定动词有三种形式，即不定式、-ing分词和-ed分词。
2. 如果介词but／except之前有动词do的某种形式，其后的不定式通常不带to，否
则要带to。例如：The enemy had no choice but to surrender．敌人除了投降之
外，没有别的选择了。 (介词but前面没有动词do的任何形式，所以不定式要带
to)：
They could do nothing but surrender．
You can do anything except leave the room．
一个及物动词的不定式，既不带主语也不带宾语,在用作后置修饰语的时候，会产生歧义：
He is too good a man to kill．可有两种理解：
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他太好了我不忍杀害他。
他太好了是不会杀害别人的。
She is the next person to consult．也有两种理解：
她是下一个我要请教的人。
她是下一个要请教我的人。
如果没有上下文语境，需要将不定式分句按例句方式进行扩展或是合适的话，使用一个
被动结构：
He is too good a man to be killed．
She is the next person to be consulted．
begin，cease，continue，start后面可以用不定式，也可以用分词-ing。当后接的动词表示“知道、理解、喜爱、嫌恶”等意义时多用不定式。
但是-ing分词不能用于下列语境：
I began to like English when I was ten．(不可说：* I began liking English„)
They ceased to love each other after their only daughter died.(不可说：* They ceased loving each other„)
She continued to hate her first husband twenty years after their divorce．(不可说：* She continued hating her„)
I‘m glad to find that you finally start to see my point.(不可说：* you finally start seeing my point．)
注意：(1)如果句中已经有了动词的-ing形式，其后就不可再接-ing分词，如：
He‘s beginning to change his habit.(不可说:* He‘s beginning changing his habit.)
It‘s no use continuing to complain．(不可说：* It‘s no use continuing complaining．)
Dangling participle垂悬分词
无主分词又叫“悬垂分词”或者“无依着分词”，指-ing分词或-ed分词在句中找不到它的逻辑主语，因而处在一种“悬垂无依着”状态，即“无主”状态，这在句法上是错误
的，在逻辑上是不合理的。如：
* Trying to be quiet，the floorboard creaked．
* Grilled on the charcoal，we liked the fish much better．
* Cooking in the kitchen, the phone rang.
上述这几个句子显然是错误的，因为它们的-ing分词或-ed分词结构没有逻辑主语，与句子其他部分“无依着”。从逻辑上说，意思讲不通。
1. The non-finite verbs: The non-finite verbs are verbs that are not marked for tense or for
subject-verb concord.
2. Dangling participle: When the subject of a participle is not expressed, it is normally
understood to be the subject of the main clause. If the rule is broken, the participle is
regarded as a dangling one.
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1. The boss expects all the documents __________ promptly.
a. being typed
b. to be typed
c. having been typed
d. to have been typed
2. The information was later admitted __________ from well-informed people.
a. to be obtained
b. to have been obtained
c. that it has been obtained
d. that it was obtained
3. We still have a lot of problems __________.
a. unsolved
b. unsolving
c. unsolve
d. to be unsolved
4. He regretted __________ her the truth.
a. having told
b. to have told
c. had told
d. to tell
Key: 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. a
1. What are the three types of non-finite verbs?
They are: infinitive, -ing participle and –ed participle
2. The bare infinitive?
The infinitive, which occurs as a verb in the base form without to is
called bare infinitive.
Correct errors in the following sentences:
1. There is no point to argue with him.
2. He began liking English at the age of 5.
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3. What we can do now is to wait.
4. You might try to cut it with a knife.
5. He will do whatever he can help us.
Key:
1. There is no point to arguing with him.
2. He began to like English at the age of 5.
3. What we can do now is wait.
4. You might try cutting it with a knife.
5. He will do whatever he can to help us.
1. The four features of adjective: Attributive function, predicative
function, pre-modification by the intensifier ?very‘ and
comparative/superlative forms
形容词具有四个特点：即定语特点、补语特点、用强调词very前置修饰的特点
及比较级和最高级特点。
只有极少数的单个形容词可作后置修饰语：
(1)the minister designate(尚未上任的部长)
the president elect(当选的主席)
He has friends galore. (他有许多朋友。)
(2)broad(广阔的)，deep(深的)，high，long，old，tall，thick，wide等词
必须用在数量名词后，表示大小、持续时间、事物的年代及人的年龄：
six feet tall
three meters wide
(3)concerned(担心的[前置],有关的[后置]),involved(复杂的[前置],涉及的[后
置] present (目前的，现在的[前置]；出席的，到场的[后置])；proper(适
合的，适当的[前置],严格意义上的，本身的[后置])responsible(认真负责的，
尽责的[前置]；有责任的，应负责任的[后置])等这些形容词用在名词前或后，
其意义有所改变：
the mother concerned(所提到的母亲)
the concerned mother(焦虑的母亲)
the man responsible(应负责任的人，负有责任的人)
the responsible man(认真负责的人，有责任心的人)
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(4)affected(受影响的；假装的，做作的)，available(可得到的，可达到的)，
required(需要，要求的)suggested(建议的)等这些词可用在名词前或名词
后，意义没有变化：
available information
information available (可获得的信息)
suggested improvements
improvements suggested (建议的改善方法)
3.形容词sick和healthy可以用作定语，而i11和well则通常用作补语，如：
What‘s the matter with Mr. White?——He‘s a sick man．
Tom was very ill，but he‘s now a healthy man．
How are you?——I’m very well，thank you．／I’m fine，thanks．
4. 比较级结构
注意当所比较的两个称呼不属于同层次时，修饰语不能前置,如，
Mr. White is a professor much more learned than his students．
*Mr. White is a much more learned professor than his students．
There are a lot of women more intelligent than John．
*There are a lot of more intelligent women than John．
1. What are attributive adjectives and predicative adjectives?
定语形容词和补语形容词各指什么?
An attributive adjective refers to an adjective that modifies a noun
and stands either before or after the noun in a noun phrase. An
predicative adjective refers to an adjective that can modify a noun
by way of serving as a subject complement or an object complement．(修
饰语形容词指用来修饰名词,可放名词前或名词后的形容词。补语形容词指通
过用作主语补足语或宾语补足语来修饰名词的形容词。)
2. When adjectives are used in the dynamic sense, what are their
syntactic and semantic features? 当形容词表示动态意义时，其句法
特征和语义特征是什么?
When adjectives are used in the dynamic sense，their syntactic
features are to denote subjective measurement or suggest a
temporary state; and their semantic features are that the qualities
denoted by the adjectives can be controlled or restricted.(当形
容词用作动态意义时，其句法特征是表示主观评定或暂时情况，其语义特
征是形容词表示的特征能被控制或限制。)
3.What are restrictive adjectives and non-restrictive adjectives?
限制性形容词和非限制形容词各指什么?
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A restrictive adjective helps identify the referent of the noun by
describing its distinctive qualities．Whereas a non—restrictive
adjective merely provides some additional information which is usually
not essential for the identification of the referent．(限制性形容词通
过描述与众不同的特征来识别名词所指的对象.非限制性形容词仅仅提供一些额
外信息，而这些信息不是识别名词所指对象的根本。)
1. The major functions prepositions:
Apart from the spatial and temporal relations，prepositions call be used
to indicate a manner in which an action is done，an instrument with which
a task is fulfilled，or a purpose that is aimed at and so on．介词除了表
示空间和时间外，还可表示动作进行的方式，完成任务所使用的工具，以及瞄准的
目标等。
Examples:
In Beijing (space), on Monday (time), leave without a word (manner), listen
to the radio (instrument), pray for peace (purpose)
2. between和among用法比较
a. between表示两者之间，among表示三者或三者以上之间：
She sat between the two children．
She sat among the three children．
b. between表示两者之间的关系，作“在„之间”解，可以表示位置、时间、
顺序、距离、数量等。而among表示“在„中间；被„所围绕”：
Our house stands between a school and a supermarket．
He lost his son when the film was over and found him among the people
outside the cinema．
电影散场时，他找不到儿子了，在电影院外人群中找到了他。
c. between表示: ―介于„之间‖,among表示“在„之中”；其中之一(与最
高级连用)：
A good teacher must be neither too strict nor too weak；his manner
must be between these two．
好教师既不能太严厉又不能太软弱；其举止必须介于两者之间。
Among his many good qualities， punctuality is the most impressive
one．
在他众多优秀品质中，守时给人留下了最深刻印象。
He made a comparison between the major English speaking countries.
I like New Zealand best among all the English speaking countries.
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d. We always use ?between‘ when we speak of clear and exact locative
positions:
The village is between three mountains.
Ecuador lies between Colombia, Peru, and the Pacific Ocean.
Preposition: In some languages, a word placed before a substantive and
indicating the relation of that substantive to a verb, an adjective, or
another substantive, as English at, by, in, to, from, and with.
介词在一些语言中放在一实词前，用于表示这一实词与动词、形容词或另一实词的
关系，如英语中的 at, by, in, to, from和 with
1. Some people show an indifference _____ changes in the weather.
a. to b. for c. with d. by
2. Doesn't Jack have any sympathy ______ the crippled boy?
a. at b. for c. in d. of
3. The president refused to accept other people's opinions ___ careful
thought.
a. for b. in c. of d. without
4. University graduates have an advantage ____ others in getting a job.
a. of b. over c. above d. for
5. Mr. Smith has the capability _____ doing first-rate work.
a. in b. from c. on d. of
6. Our factory is located _________ three mountains.
a. among b. over c. between d. inside
1. 解释表示空间关系的介词静态及动态使用方法?
We use prepositions to indicate the place where someone or
something is，or the place where an action occurs．This distinction may
also be regarded as one between the static use and the dynamic use of
prepositions，the former related with static location and the latter with
movement with respect to an intended direction．(我们用介词表示某人或某
物所在的位置，或者某个动作发生的位置。其区别在于介词的静态使用和动态使用。
介词静态使用指与静态位置有关，动态使用指与所指方向有关的运动。)
2．指出表示持续时间和非持续时间介词的例子。
(1)He was ill for a week，and during that week he ate little．
他病了一周，这一周，他吃得很少。(for，during表持续时间)
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(2)The airplane left Japan at seven in the morning。
飞机早晨7点离开日本。(at表非持续时间)
The syntactic functions of a prepositional phrase: a post-modifier in the
noun phrase, an adverbial and a complement.介词词组，在句子中作后置修饰语、
状语、补语等。E.g. a girl in white, handle it in a proper way, be interested
in cooking.
Correct the following sentences:
1. The culture in Iraq is very different than that in the U.S.
2. Come in the room, please.
3. A man of words and not of deeds is as a garden full of weeds.
Key: 1. than ---- from 2. in-----into 3. as----like
Coordination and subordination are two important ways in which two or
more units are combined into larger and more complex units, even sentences.
Coordination is typically realized by coordinators (also termed as
coordination conjunctions) which join units at the same level, whereas
subordination, realized by subordinators (also termed as subordinating
conjunctions, involves the linking of units at different levels so that they
form a hierarchy.
并列和从属是连接句子的两个手段。并列是靠并列连词(coordinating
conjunctions)实现的，它把同一层次的几个单位连接起来。从属是靠从属连词
(subordinating conjunctions)实现的，它把不同层次的几个单位连接起来，从而
形成了一个等级(主从关系)。
2. And具有多种功能,如：
a. The professor went into the classroom，opened his notebook，and started the
lecture．教授走进教室，打开笔记本，然后开始讲课。 (and表示先后顺序，然
后，其后)
b. He heard his dog bark at door，and he looked out of the window only to find
that his house was surrounded by a large crowd of angry people．他听到狗冲
门叫，于是朝窗外看，发现他的房子被愤怒的群众包围了。(and = therefore表因
果)
c. Work harder and you‘ll pass the test．如果努力学习，考试就会及格。
(= If you work harder，you‘11 pass the test．and表条件)
d. Liz is talkative and her husband is reserved． (and = but表对照)
e. English is difficult to learn，and so is French． (and表相似性)
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f. He is a chain smoker，and he stinks all over．他是一支接一支抽烟的人，浑
身是烟味。(and表另外)
g. She ran and ran until she was out of breath．她跑啊跑直到跑得上气不接下气。
(and表示重复或连续)
3. 0r也可用在一些固定表达法中，or仍然引出一个选择：
a. Clean up the mess，or else! 你好好弄干净了，否则给你好看!(or else用作
威胁)
b. You may stay here for a day or two． (or two大约，至少，或多一些)
c. The tribe was called Milwaukee or something． (or something或什么的，
表说话者不肯定)
1. What is the difference between coordination and subordination?
Coordination is typically realized by coordinators which join units at
the same, level, whereas subordination realized by subordinators,
involves the linking of units at different levels so that they form a
hierarchy. The difference between coordination and subordination also
lies in the amount of importance the speaker wishes to attach to the
joined constituents. (并列是靠并列连接词实现的,它把同一层次的各个成分连
接起来。而从属是由从属连接词实现的，它把不同层次的各个成分连接起来从而形
成一个等级。并列和从属的区别还在于说话人对构成成分的重视程度不同)
2. What are the major types of finite and non-finite subordinate clauses?
限定从属分句和非限定从属分句的主要形式是什么?
The major types of finite subordinate clause are relative clause，
adverbial clause and nominal clause．The major types of non—finite
subordinate clause are infinitive clause，—ing participle clause and
—ed participle clause and verbless clause．(限定从属分句的主要形式
有关系分句，状语分句和名词性分句。非限定从属分句的形式有不定式分句，
以—ing结尾的分词分句，以—ed结尾的分词分句和无动词分句)
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1. Explain the differences in form and in function between the restrictive
and the non-restrictive relative clauses: 解释限制性关系分句与非限制性关
系分句在形式和功能上的不同.
In form, firstly, non- restrictive clause is set off in writing by commas,
which is indicated in speech by a slight pause and characteristic change
in pitch both before and after. The restrictive clause is not set off by
such features.
Secondly, the choice of pronouns is different. If the clause is
introduced by ?that‘ or a zero relative pronoun, it must be a restrictive
relative clause; if it is introduced by which or other wh -words, it may
be either restrictive or non-restrictive. With the non-restrictive
relative clause, ?that‘ cannot be used.
In function, the restrictive relative clause is an integral part of the noun
phrase and gives essential information for the identification of what its
antecedent refers to. On the other hand, the non-restrictive relative clause
merely offers additional information which is not needed to identify the
person or thing we are talking about, and therefore may be discarded without
serious injury to the understanding of the sentence as a whole.
(限制性关系分句与非限制性关系分句在形式上有很大区别。首先，非限制性关系
分句在书写上用逗号隔开，在讲话中，语调上轻微停顿和前后程度明显变化。而限
制性关系分句却没有这样的特征，关系词的选择也是两种关系分句的区别。如果分
句是用关系词that或者根本不用关系词引导，那么此句肯定是限制性关系分句。
然而，如果用which或以wh—开头的词引导，那么此句或者是限制性的或者是非
限制性的。注意：that不能用于非限制性关系分句。
两种关系分句在功能上也有很大不同。限制性关系分句是名词词组不可分割的一部
分并且为确认先行项的所指对象提供了必不可少的信息。相反，非限制性关系分句
仅仅提供额外信息，这不是识别我们正在谈论的这个人或物的必要信息。因此，这
种信息可以省略，但并不严重地影响对整个句子的理解)
Illustrate a nominal antecedent that only accepts the restrictive relative
clause and one that only accepts the non-restrictive relative clause.
用例子解释只能接受限制性关系分句的名词性先行词和只能接受非限制性关系
分句的名词性先行词。
Antecedents that only accept the restrictive relative clause typically
include nouns or pronouns with unspecified reference--indefinites such as
all, any, some, every, no, etc, and compounds.
e. g 1. The lady who lives next door is now traveling in Thailand. (noun
as the antecedent) .
2. All that glitters is not gold. (indefinites as an antecedent)
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3. No one who has ever visited the town will fail to be impressed by its
local delicacies. (compound as antecedent)
Proper nouns as antecedents co-occur almost exclusively with non-
restrictive relative clause.
e. g 4. St. Paul' s Cathedral, which the guide was referring to, was designed
by Sir Christopher Wren. (St. Paul's Cathedral is a proper noun)
(只接受限制性关系分句，非常典型的先行词包括名词、不定代词以及复合词。例
1是名词作先行词，例2是不定代词作先行词，例3是复合词作先行词。
专有名词作为先行项可接受非限制性关系分句。例4是专有名词作为先行词)
嵌入式关
系分句
句(3)中有两个关系分句,一个套着一个;句(1)、(2)各只有一个关系分句,其本身
嵌在一个分句中.所以（1）、（2）为嵌入式关系分句
The relative clause: it is defined as a clausal modifier, restrictive or non-restrictive, used
to modify a preceding construction, most often a preceding noun or noun phrase.
关系分句，无论是限制性关系分句还是非限制性关系分句，都是用来修饰一个先行
结构,而名词或名词词组是最常见的先行结构从句型修饰语。
我们通常使用哪种关系分句去修饰非名词性先行词?
We normally use non-restrictive relative clause to modify a non-nominal
antecedent．(我们通常用非限制性关系分句修饰非名词先行项)
2. List the conditions we need to take into consideration when we choose
a relative pronoun? 当我们选关系词时，需要考虑的条件是什么?
We need to take three conditions into consideration．
(1)the relation of the relative clause to its antecedent：restrictive or
non-restrictive; (2)the gender type of the antecedent：personal or non-
personal;(3)the function of the relative pronoun as subject，object，or
complement.(当我们选择关系词时,需要考虑以下三个条件条件(1)关系分句与先
行词的关系,即限制性的或非限制性的;(2)先行项的所指意义,即指人还是指物;(3)关
系词在分句中的成分，即主语,宾语,补语等)
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3. Explain the difference between a double relative clause and an embedded
relative clause? 解释双重关系分句与嵌入式关系分句的不同点。
Double relative clause can be easily confused with embedded relative
clause because of their seemingly identical structure．However，there is
a difference between them．In double relative clause，there are two
relative clauses，one enclosing the other，whereas in embedded relative
clause there is only one relative clause which itself is embedded in a
clause．(双重关系分句与嵌入式关系分句在结构上颇为相似，很容易混淆。但它
们之间也有区别。双重关系分句中有两个(或两个以上)关系分句，而嵌入式关系分
句只含有一个分句)
1. Adverbials can take a variety of forms on different grammatical levels:
they can be adverbs, adjectives or nouns; they can be prepositional phrases,
adverb phrases, adjective phrases or noun phrases, or they can take clauses,
finite or non-finite.
状语的形式多种多样：副词、形容词或名词；介词词组、副词词组、形容词词组
或名词词组；限定分句或非限定分句皆可作状语。
2.Explain the differences between adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts in
structure and in function.
Adjuncts typically modify verbs, disjuncts convey a comment on the content
of the clause to which they are peripherally attached; conjuncts, on the
other hand, are logical adhesives, functioning to connect a new sentence
with the context.
，又叫结合性状语，是谓语的一个组成部分。它不仅修饰动词(词组)
还可修饰形容词、副词、介词或连词；它是状语的主体。
，又叫分离性状语，是对全句进行说明或解释，表示说话人对话语的看法
或态度；评注性状语不与它所评注的句子在结构上紧密结合，通常位于句首，常用逗
号与句子隔开。
通常由某些副词词组和介词词组等表示，在句子或分句之间起连接作用。
它不同于修饰性状语和评注性状语，因为它对句子不起修饰或评注作用。
3. 有时表示较大地点的状语可以置于句首，但表示较小地点的状语不可移至句首：
In the restaurant she sat on a table．
* On the table she sat in the restaurant．
will表示将来时间，不能用在订分句中；当will用在条件分句时，通常表示“意
愿、打算”。
If you will come and help us out, we will finish the task ahead.
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5. 还有一种条件句，其分句谓语动词不管主语的人称和数如何，一律用 ―推定
should + 不定式”，而主句的动词可以根据意思需要，采用不同形式。
If he should be found guilty, he will be deprived of the guardianship of
his children.
文体评注性状语表示说话者对话语的看法、态度：
Frankly，he isn‘t working hard enough．
Honestly，few people tell the truth when they say that they have never told
a lie.
内容评注性状语表示说话人对话语内容的评述：
Obviously，she couldn‘t deal with these problems．
Luckily，they managed to escape being fined．
有一条
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可用来识别到底是文体评注性状语还是内容评注性状语：可否插入
speaking一词，比较：
Frankly speaking，he isn‘t working hard enough.(frankly后面可以插入
speaking，是文体评注性状语)．
Obviously speaking，she couldn‘t deal with these problems．(因为obviously
后面不可以插入speaking，所以是内容评注性状语)
1. Both result-adjuncts and purpose-adjuncts can be introduced by ?so that‘.
How can we tell the difference?
so that既可引导结果状语又可引导目的状语,其区别方法是:1)分句前有无逗号:
有逗号的是结果状语分句,否则为目的状语分句.2)分句中有无情态动词:分句中有
can, may, could, might等情态助动词时,多为目的状语分句,否则多为结果状语
分句.3)分句可否移至句首:目的状语分句可以移至句首,而结果状语分句则不可以,
只能位于句末.
2. Discuss various grammatical forms that disjuncts may take.
论述评注性状语可能采用的语法形式。
The majority of disjuncts take the form of the adverb and occur in the initial
position of the sentence. However, disjuncts can also take other forms, such
as prepositional phrase, infinitive clause, -ing participle clause, -ed
participle clause and finite clause. For example,
in all frankness, to be
frank, frankly speaking, put frankly, if I can speak frankly.
评注性状语通常由副词表示，也可由介词词组、不定式分句、-ing分词分句、-ed
分词分句和限定分句表示。
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1. Concord, also termed ?agreement‘, can be defined as ?the relationship between two grammatical units such that one of tem displays a particular feature that accords
with a displayed feature in the other.
一致，顾名思义指一句英文句子里各部分之间的协调、合符语法的现象。 2. Concord could be formed on the basis of several grammatical features such as person,
gender and number. 一致, 通常包含人称、性别及数的一致。
3. The subject-verb concord is governed by three complementary principles: the
grammatical principle, the notional principle and the principle of proximity.
主语——动词一致通常为三个互为补充的原则所支配，即语法一致原则、意义一致原则和就
近一致原则。
a. Everybody was happy with the decision． (语法一致)
b. The audience were brought to their feet at the sight of superman in his
wheelchair．(意义一致)
c. Either you or I am responsible for the mistake． (就近一致)
4. 记住教材337上的常用集合名词所涉及的‘一致’
The public holds a very negative attitude towards this newspaper.
The aristocracy does not enjoy as much privilege as it used to.
The British police have very limited powers.
Poultry are less expensive in the rural areas.
I like to know what the enemy is thinking about.
The enemy were going to attack soon.
5．In mathematical equation, both number alternatives are acceptable with addition
but the singular verb is generally used with subtraction, multiplication and
division: 在数学公式中，仅两数相加，动词谓语可以用单数，也可以用复数；两数相减、
相乘和相除，动词谓语通常用单数。
Two plus two is / are four.
Eight minus four is / leaves four.
关系分句的先行项为 ―one of + 复数名词‖时,根据就近一致的原则,动词与靠近
它的复数名词(而不是one)一致:
She is one of these girls who have trouble making up their minds.
This is one of the many houses here which were destroyed in the
earthquake.
当one的前面被the only修饰时,关系分句的先行项是one而不是复数名词,依据语法
一致的原则,动词应用单数形式:
She is the only one of her family who has trouble making up their minds.
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The grammatical principle: it stipulates that the verb matches its subject both in person
and in number.
1. Language is a communication system. Our communication usually
involves two parties: one producing the message and the other
receiving the message. The producer would try to guide the
receiver to the proper understanding of his message; the
receiver, in the meantime, would try to avail himself of the
message in a most direct way.
语言是一种交际体系，交际通常涉及发出信息的说话人或文章作者和
接收信息的听话人或读者这两个方面。发出者想方设法引导接收者正
确理解其信息，而与此同时接收者也在竭力用最直接的方法利用这信
息。
2. To make stress on certain items, we can postpone them. The most
common and useful ways to do so are: passive voice,
extraposition and discontinuity.
要强调的重要信息的后移可有许多方式，最常见、最有用的方式有被
动态(passive voice)、外位(extraposition)和分隔
(discontinuity)
For example:
a. My dog sent the mail．
--- The mail was sent by my dog．(被动态)
b. To make fun of a disabled man is not funny at a11．
-一It is not funny at all to make funny of a disabled man.(外位)
c. The time when anyone can afford a car will come．
--- The time will come when anyone can afford a car．(分隔)
Fronting
Fronting is a term which refers to the removal of an item from
its unmarked post-subject position to the marked pre-subject
position. Thus, the removal is focused.
前置指把原来位于句中或句末的成分一即无标记主题的位置至句首，给
人一种出其不意的感觉，从而受到特殊强调。
a. Into a large crowd of spectators the plane dived．
b. An honest man be used to be.
上述情况下，前置的成分传递新的信息，特别引人注目。
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4. Inversion 倒装
The difference between inversion and fronting is twofold: first,
inversion involves the reversal of subject-verb order while
fronting usually does not; second, whereas fronting usually
transfers the information focus from the final position to the front,
inversion may comply with either fronting or postponement depending
on its structure.
人们常常认为倒装类似于前置，错误地以为两者都是把一个成分移到句
首。倒装和前置的区别有两个方面：一是倒装包含主、谓语词序的颠倒
而前置通常则不然。二是前置通常把信息中心从句末移至句首而倒装则
根据其语法结构，或遵守前置原则或遵守后移原则。
Cleaving分裂
语法向我们提供了一种更为复杂的、实际上和前置相一致的、突出重要信息
的句子结构：分裂句和准分裂句，如：
It is traitor that we shall call him.(分裂句)
What we shall call him is traitor.(准分裂句)
6. Existential sentence存在句
人们完全可以认为存在句是一种后移手段。通常，一个句子以已知信息开始—
—主语，然而继续进行到新信息——谓语。
从交际的观点来看，一个句子若是以非确定特指的主语开始，是不常见的，甚至
是不可接受的，如：
? A grocery is across the street．有一家杂货店在马路对过。
? A big china vase was on a marble—topped table．
为了不致使听者和读者一看见句首便产生唐突的感觉，可以将双方已知的信息，比
如说一个代词，放到句首位置而把新信息移到句尾，作为句尾焦点：
We have a grocery across the street．
I found a big china vase on a marble—topped table．
1. Cohesion can be established with the help of a number of devices. We shall
divide them into three major types: reference, substitution and ellipsis.
句子之间的粘着力(即衔接手段)主要有照应(reference)、替代(substitution)和省
略(ellipsis)三大类.
Examples:
A：Is John trying to enter Harvard Law School?
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B：No，I don‘t believe he is．He hates lawyers．(照应：he = John)
A：Is John trying to enter Harvard Law School?
B：No，I don‘t think so. He hates lawyers．(替代：so = that he is trying to enter„)
A：Is John trying to enter Harvard Law School?
B：No，he isn‘t．He hates lawyers．(省略：not = not trying to enter„)
照应有语外照应(exophoric reference)和语内照应(endophoric reference)；语
外照应的所指对象在语外上下文中，语内照应的所指对象在语内上下文中。
语内照应又有前照应(anaphoric reference)和后照应(cataphoric reference)之
分。
a. They are always raising the prices．(语外照应)
b. Wow，you‘ve got a huge house．I didn‘t expect it to be so big．(前照应)
c. Listen．This is what I want you to do now．Go back to your room，put away
the toys，wash your hands and come back to the table in ten minutes．(后
照应)
替代
比较：
I like this car，but I can‘t afford it.(照应)
I want a car，but I can‘t afford one. (替代)
照应和替代的区别在：照应是意义上的指代一个对象，而替代则是结构上的替代
一个词语或分句。因此照应项和照应对象在意义上是相等的，也就是说，指的是同
一个东西。而替代则是用词上而不是意义上的替代。正是由于替代的结果而产生的
这种结构上的相同，形成了替代项和被替代项之间上下文衔接关系。
名词性替代词one和数词one有区别：
A．替代词one可以带修饰语而数词one则不可，
B．替代词one从不重读而数词one则要重读，
C．替代词one可有复数形式(ones)而数词one永远没有复数形式(其相应的复数
形式为some)，
D．替代词one是名词词组的中心词而数词one却是个限定词：
A：Can l have these apples，Mum?
B：You just had a big one．(one是替代词)
A：Can l have these apples，Mum?
B：Yes，but you eat one (apple) and give the rest to your little brother．
(one是数词)
省略
The basic principle is leaving out something understood. From the structural
point of view, ellipsis produces incomplete sentences. Ellipsis can be divided
into three types with regard to the grammatical confines of ellipsis: nominal
ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and causal ellipsis.
省略的基本原则是只要不损害语法结构或不造成理解上的困难，能省略的尽量省略。
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从结构的观点来看，省略的结果出现了不完整的句子，但省略的部分都是明确的，而且
可以在上(下)文中找到。由于上下文语境被省略成分的可恢复性，省略和替代一样，是
句子之间的承接纽带。
省略有三种：名词性省略、动词性省略和分句性省略。
a. There are four flights to New York today．Let‘s take the earliest (flight)．
----Who else is coming to the party?
----Paul(is coming to the party)． (省略整个动词词组)
c. ----Will it rain tomorrow?
------Perhaps(it will rain tomorrow．) (省略整个分句)
6．Other cohesive devices其他衔接手段
Other devices are: transition, repletion and parallelism.除了上述提及的三种衔接手段外，语篇中的句子还可以通过其他许多手段使我们的句子结构粘着、意思连贯地衔
接起来，例如：用过渡词语、重复有关词语、用排比结构。
1. The unified text: the unified text is one that is not only structurally
well-integrated but also semantically coherent. unified text，是从结构和语
义的角度来研究text，结构要很好衔接而语义要连贯。
2. 语外照应 exophoric reference means reference to the nonlinguistic
or situational context.
1. Rewrite the following sentence using whatever cohesive device is appropriate:
My wife and I are going to dine out this evening, In fact, we dine out every weekend. (2001)
2. Rewrite the following sentence using whatever cohesive device is appropriate:
If you travel often, keep a collection of necessities pre-packed. Keeping a collection of necessities
pre-packed will give you time to pare the nonessentials. (EX. II, P396)
Key: 1. (... In fact, we do it/so every weekend.)
2. (...That will give you time to pare the nonessentials.)
Wish you great progress and good luck!
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