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水利水电工程专业英语——水文与水资源篇

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水利水电工程专业英语——水文与水资源篇水利水电工程专业英语——水文与水资源篇1.HydrologicalCycleandBudget1.水文循环与预算Hydrologyisanearthscience.Itencompassestheoccurrence,distribution,movement,andpropertiesofthewatersoftheearthandtheirenvironmentalrelations.Closelyalliedfieldsincludegeology,climatology,meteor...

水利水电工程专业英语——水文与水资源篇
水利水电 工程 路基工程安全技术交底工程项目施工成本控制工程量增项单年度零星工程技术标正投影法基本原理 专业英语——水文与水资源篇1.HydrologicalCycleandBudget1.水文循环与预算Hydrologyisanearthscience.Itencompassestheoccurrence,distribution,movement,andpropertiesofthewatersoftheearthandtheirenvironmentalrelations.Closelyalliedfieldsincludegeology,climatology,meteorologyandoceanography.水文学是一门地球科学。它包含地球水资源的发生、分布、运动和特质,以及其环境关系。与之密切相关领域包括地质学,气候学,气象学和海洋学。Thehydrologiccycleisacontinuousprocessbywhichwateristransportedfromtheoceanstotheatmospheretothelandandbacktothesea.Manysub-cyclesexist.Theevaporationofinlandwateranditssubsequentprecipitationoverlandbeforereturningtotheoceanisoneexample.Thedrivingforcefortheglobalwatertransportsystemisprovidedbythesun,whichfurnishestheenergyrequiredforevaporation.Notethatthewaterqualityalsochangesduringpassagethroughthecycle;forexample,seawaterisconvertedtofreshwaterthroughevaporation.水文循环是一个连续的过程,在这个过程中水从海洋被运输到大气中,降落到陆地,然后回到海洋。有很多子循环存在。内陆水域的蒸发机器后在回到海洋前在陆地上的将于就是一个例子。全球水运输系统的运行动力由太阳提供,通过蒸发这个过程赋予水运动能量。需要注意的是,水质在水循环通道中也会改变,比如,海水在蒸发后就会转变成淡水。Thecompletewatercycleisglobalinnature.Worldwaterproblemsrequirestudiesonregional,national,international,continental,andglobalscales.Practicalsignificanceofthefactthatthetotalsupplyoffreshwateravailabletotheearthislimitedandverysmallcomparedwiththesaltwatercontentoftheoceanshasreceivedlittleattention.Thuswatersflowinginonecountrycannotbeavailableatthesametimeforuseinotherregionsoftheworld.Modernhydrologistsareobligatedtocopewithproblemsrequiringdefinitioninvaryingscalesofsignificantorderofmagnitudedifference.Inaddition,developingtechniquestocontrolweathermustreceivecarefulattention,sinceclimatologicalchangesinoneareacanprofoundlyaffectthehydrologyandthereforethewaterresourcesofotherregions.完整的水循环在自然界中是全球性的。世界水问题需要在区域,国家,国际,洲际和全球范围的研究。地球上可利用的淡水总量与海洋中的咸水相比是有限的,并且非常少,这个重要的显示尚未得到人们足够关注。因此,在一个国家流动的水源并不能同时在世界的其他区域被利用。现代水文学应该着力解决显著数量级的差异在不同尺度上的定义问题。此外,发展控制天气的技术必须得到密切关注,因为一个地区的气候变化能够深刻地影响到其他地区的水文循环进而影响到其水资源。Becausethetotalquantityofwateravailabletotheearthisfiniteandindestructible,theglobalhydrologicsystemmaybelookeduponasclosed.Openhydrologicsystemmaybelookeduponasclosed.Openhydrologicsubsystemsareabundant,however,andtheseareusuallythetypeanalyzed.Foranysystem,awaterbudgetcanbedevelopedtoaccountforthehydrologiccomponents.因为地球上可利用的水量是有限且不可避免的,所以全球的水文循环系统可以被看成是闭合的。开放性的水文循环系统可以被看成是闭合的。开放的水文子系统内容丰富,然而这些系统也是经常被分析到的。对于任何系统,水预算都能够转变到对水文组成的计算。Figures1and2showahydrologicbudgetforthecoterminousUnitedStates.Thesefiguresillustratethecomponentsofthewatercyclewithwhichahydrologistisconcerned.Inapracticalsense,somehydrologicregionisdealtwithandabudgetforthatregionisestablished.Suchregionsmaybetopographicallydefined(watershedsandriverbasinsareexamples),politicallyspecified(e.g.countryorcitylimits),orchosenonsomeothergrounds.Watershedsordrainagebasinsaretheeasiesttodealwithsincetheysharplydefinesurfacewaterboundaries.Thesetopographicallydeterminedareasaredrainedbyariver/streamorsystemofconnectingrivers/streamssuchthatalloutflowisdischargedthroughasingleoutlet.Unfortunately,itisoftennecessarytodealwithregionsthatarenotwellsuitedfortrackinghydrologiccomponents.Fortheseareas,thehydrologistwillfindhydrologicbudgetingsomewhatofachallenge.图1和图2展示了美国毗连地区的水文循环。这些图展示了考虑水文的水循环的过程。从实际意义上讲,一些水文区域被处理并且建立了预算。这些区域可以是在地形上确定(如流域和河流盆地)、在政治上确定(如根据国家或者城市限制),或以其他因素确定。流域或者排水流域是最容易确定的,因为它们明显地限定了地表水的边界。这些地形上确定的区域由一条河流/溪流或者相连的河流/溪流排水,因此所有的出流都从某个单一的出口排出。不幸的是,我们经常会处理到不适合通过跟踪水文组成部分的区域。对于这些区域,水文学家会在不同程度上挑战地进行水文预算。Theprimaryinputinahydrologicbudgetisprecipitation.Someoftheprecipitation(e.g.rain,snow,hail)maybeinterceptedbytrees,grass,othervegetation,andstructuralobjectsandwilleventuallyreturntotheatmospherebyevaporation.Onceprecipitationreachestheground,someofitmayfilldepressions(becomedepressionstorage),partmaypenetratetheground(infiltrate)toreplenishsoilmoistureandgroundwaterreservoirs,andsomemaybecomesurfacerunoff,thatis,flowovertheearth’ssurfacetoadefinedchannelsuchasastream.在水文预算中首要的输入是降水。部分降水(如雨、雪、冰雹)会被树木、草地、其它植被以及建筑物截留,并最终会通过蒸发返回大气。若降水到达地面,其中一些会在洼地储存(成为洼地存水),部分会入渗到地下(渗透)补充含水层和地下储水,一些会成为地表径流,即流过地表进入到已有的通道中,比如溪流。Waterenteringthegroundmaytakeseveralpaths.Somemaybedirectlyevaporatedifadequatetransferfromthesoiltothesurfaceismaintained.Thiscaneasilyoccurwhereahighgroundwatertable(freewatersurface)iswithinthelimitsofcapillarytransporttothegroundsurface.Vegetationusingsoilmoistureorgroundwaterdirectlycanalsotransmitinfiltratedwatertotheatmospherebyaprocessknownastranspiration.Infiltratedwatermaylikewisereplenishsoilmoisturedeficienciesandenterstorageprovidedingroundwaterreservoirs,whichinturnmaintaindryweatherstreamflow.Importantbodiesofgroundwaterareusuallyflowingsothatinfiltratedwaterreachingthesaturatedzonemaybetransportedforconsiderabledistancesbeforeitisdischarged.Groundwatermovementissubject,ofcourse,tophysicalandgeologicalconstraints.水进入地表后可能有几个途径(被利用)。如果土壤水到地表的转移能够得到保证,一些可能被直接蒸发。这种现象很容易发生在毛细现象运输到达地表限制水位内的高地下水位情况下。植被直接利用的土壤水或地下水可通过所谓的“蒸腾”过程把如深水转换到大气中去。入渗水同样可以补充不足的土壤水且接入到地下水库提供的容量中,这些水反过来会在干燥天气保持水流运动。重要的地下水体一般都在流动,因此到达饱和区域的入渗水可能会在被运输了相当远的距离后才被排出。地下水的运动自然地会受到物理和地质条件的限制。Waterstoredindepressionswilleventuallyevaporateorinfiltratethegroundsurface.Surfacerunoffultimatelyreachesminorchannels(gullies,rivulets,andthelike),flowstomajorstreamsandfinallyreachesanocean.Alongthecourseofastream,evaporationandinfiltrationcanalsooccur.储存在洼地的水会最终蒸发或入渗到地表。地表径流最终到达小的通道(沟渠,溪流等),流向大的溪流,最后到达海洋。在水流动的过程中,蒸发和渗流也同时发生着。2.UnitHydrographs2.单位线Waystopredictfloodpeakdischargesanddischargehydrographsfromrainfalleventshavebeenstudiedintensivelysincetheearly1930s.Oneapproachreceivingconsiderableuseiscalledtheunithydrographmethod.ItderivesfromamethodofunitgraphsemployedbySherman,in1932.Theunitgraphisdefinedasfollows:ifagivenX-hourrainfallproducesa10cmdepthofrunoffoverthegivendrainagearea,thehydrographshowingtheratesatwhichtherunoffoccurredcanbeconsideredaunitgraphforthatwatershed.自20世纪30年代早期就已经深入研究了降雨事件中预测洪峰流量和流量过程线的方法。一个应用广泛的方法被称为单位线法。它源于谢尔曼在1932年使用的单位曲线的方法。该单位曲线定义如下:如果在给定的X小时内,给定的流域上产生了10cm深的径流,则在该流域出口断面形成的地面径流过程线即为单位线。Itisincorrecttodescribeaunithydrographwithoutspecifyingtheduration,Xofthestormthatproducedit.AnX-hourunithydrographisdefinedasadirectrunoffhydrographhavinga10cm.VolumeandresultingfromanX-hourstormhavingasteadyintensityof10/Xcm/hr.A2-hrunithydrographwouldbethatproducedbya2-hrstormduringwhich10cmofexcessrunoffwasuniformlygeneratedoverthebasin.A1-dayunithydrographwouldbeproducedbyastormhaving10cmofexcessrainuniformlyproducedduringa24-hrperiod.ThevalueXisoftenafractionof1hr.如果不指明单位线的降雨历时X,那么描述单位线是不正确的。X小时的单位线被定义为具有10厘米的直接径流的过程线。一个X小时的暴雨有着稳定的10/X厘米/小时的体量和结果。一个2小时的单位线将由在流域内均匀产生10厘米过量径流的2小时暴雨所产生。一个1日单位线将由在24小时期间内均匀产生的具有10厘米过量降雨的暴雨所产生的。X值通常是1小时的几分之一。ApplicationanX-hourunitgraphtodesignrainfallexcessamountsotherthan10cmisaccomplishedsimplybymultiplyingtherainfallexcessamountbytheunitgraphordinates,sincetherunoffordinatesforagivendurationareassumedtobedirectlyproportionaltorainfallexcess.A3-hrstormproducing20cmofnetrainwouldhaverunoffrates2timesthevaluesofthe3-hrunithydrograph.5cmin3hrwouldproduceflowshalfthemagnitudeofthe3-hrunithydrograph.Thisassumptionofproportionalflowsappliesonlytoequaldurationstorms.采用X小时的单位线来计算并非等于10厘米的径流过程,可简单地用净雨深乘以单位线的纵标,因为对一个给定时段,单位线假定径流与净雨直接成正比。一个产生20厘米净雨的3小时暴雨的径流速率值将是3小时单位线的2倍。3小时内5厘米将会产生3小时单位线一半的量。该成比例径流假设仅适用于相同历时的暴雨。IfthedurationofanotherstormisanintegermultipleofX,thestormistreatedasaseriesofendtoendX-hourstorms.First,thehydrographsfromeachXincrementofrainaredeterminedfromtheX-hourunithydrograph.Theordinatesarethenaddedatcorrespondingtimestodeterminethetotalhydrograph.如果另一个暴雨的历时是X的整数倍,那么该暴雨就被视作一系列首尾相连的X小时暴雨系列。首先,每个X降雨增量的过程线由X小时单位线确定。然后在相应的时间叠加到纵轴,以确定总的过程线。Implicitinderivingtheunithydrographistheassumptionthatrainfallisdistributedinthesametemporalandspatialpatternforallstorms.Thisisgenerallynottrue;consequently,variationsinordinatesfordifferentstormofequaldurationcanbeexpected.在推导单位线隐含的假设是所有暴雨中降雨都按照相同的时间和空间类型而分布。这通常并不是真实的;因此,可以预期对于相同历时的不同暴雨中的纵坐标的变化。TheconstructionofunithydrographsforotherthanintegermultiplesofthederiveddurationisfacilitatedbyamethodknownastheS-hydrograph.TheprocedureemploysaunithydrographtoformanS-hydrographresultingfromacontinuousappliedrainfall.Theunithydrographtheorycanbeappliedungaugedwatershedsbyrelatingunithydrographfeaturestowatershedcharacteristics.Asaresultoftheattemptedsynthesisofdata,theseapproachesarereferredtoassyntheticunithydrographmethods.Theneedtoalterdurationofaunithydrographencouragedstudiestodefinetheshortestpossiblestormduration,thatis,aninstantaneousunitrainfall.Theconceptofinstantaneousunithydrograph(IUH)canbeusedinconstructionunithydrographsforotherthanthederivedduration.对于历时不是整数倍的单位线的建立,引入了一个被称为“S曲线”的方法。该过程引入了一个单位线以组成一个自所引用连续降雨产生的S曲线。单位线理论可以通过将单位线特征与流域特性相关联而应用到无水文资料流域。作为数据的尝试合成的结果,这些方法被称为“综合单位线法”。改变单位线历时的需要鼓励研究确定最短的风暴历时,即,瞬时单位的降雨量。“瞬时单位线”(IUH)的概念可以被用于构建非引用历时的单位线。Methodsofderivingunithydrographsvaryandaresubjecttoengineeringjudgment.Thelevelofsophisticationemployedtounraveltheproblemdependslargelyonthekindofissueinquestion.Severalmethodsusefulinthedeterminationofunithydrographswillbediscussed.TheyaresubdividedintostartingwithunithydrographsobtainedfromfielddataandmanipulatingthembyS-hydrographmethodsandconstructingsyntheticunithydrographs.获得单位线的方法各异且受工程师判断的影响。用来解开问题的复杂程度在很大程度上取决于所讨论的那种问题。在确定单位线的过程中将讨论很多有用的方法。它们细分为开始从现场数据获得单位线,然后用S曲线方法操作它们并构建综合单位线。Datacollectionpreparatorytoderivingaunithydrographforagaugedwatershedcanbeextremelytimeconsuming.Todevelopaunithydrograph,itisdesirabletoacquireasmanyrainfallrecordsaspossiblewithinthestudyareatoensurethattheamountanddistributionofrainfalloverthewatershedisaccuratelyknown.Preliminaryselectionofstormstouseinderivingaunithydrographforawatershedshouldberestrictedtothefollowing:1)Stormsoccurringindividually,thatis,simplestormstructure.2)Stormshavinguniformdistributionofrainfallthroughouttheperiodofrainfallexcess.3)Stormshavinguniformspatialdistributionovertheentirewatershed.获得一个有水文资料流域的单位线的数据收集准备会相当地费时。为了建立一个单位线,最好是获得尽可能多的研究区域内的降水记录,以确保准确知晓流域内降雨的数量和分布。要用于流域获得单位线的降雨初步选择应该严格遵循如下:1)暴雨独立地发生,即,单独的暴雨结构。2)在整个过量降雨期间,暴雨具有均匀的降雨分布。3)降雨在整个流域内具有均匀的空间分布。Theserestrictionsplacebothupperandlowerlimitsonsizeofthewatershedtobeemployed.Anupperlimitofwatershedsizeofapproximately2000km2isovercautious,althoughgeneralstormsoversuchareasarenotunrealisticandsomestudiesofareasupto3000km2haveusedtheunithydrographtechnique.Thelowerlimitofwatershedextentdependsonnumerousotherfactorsandcannotbepreciselydefined.Ageneralruleofthumbistoassumeabout10km2.Fortunately,otherhydrologictechniqueshelpresolveunithydrographsforwatershedsoutsidethisrange.这些约束限制了要应用流域大小的上限和下限。2000平方公里左右的流域大小的上限是过于谨慎的,尽管在这些区域的通常暴雨并非不切实际并且一些面积达到3000平方公里地区的研究也应用了单位线技术。流域范围的下限取决于众多的其他因素,并不能被准确定义。一般的经验是假设约10平方公里。幸运的是,其它过程线技术可以帮助解决在这个范围外的流域单位线。Thepreliminaryscreeningofsuitablestormsforunithydrographformationmustmeetmorerestrictivecriteriabeforefurtheranalysis:1)Durationofrainfalleventshouldbeapproximately10%-30%ofthedrainagearealagtime.2)Directrunofffortheselectedstormshouldbegreaterthan5cm.3)Asuitablenumberofstormsshouldbeanalyzedtoobtainanaverageoftheordinatesforaselectedunithydrographduration.ModificationsmaybemadetoadjustunithydrographdurationsbymeansofS-hydrographsofIUHprocedures.4)Directrunoffordinatesforeachstormshouldbereducedsothateacheventrepresents10cmofdirectrunoff.5)Thefinalunithydrographofaspecificdurationforthewatershedisobtainedbyaveragingordinatesofselectedeventsandadjustingtheresulttoobtain10cmofdirectrunoff.在进一步分析之前,单位线形成的合适暴雨的初步筛选必须满足以下更加严格的标准:1)降雨事件的历时应该大约是流域面积延迟时间的10%-30%。2)所选择的暴雨的直接径流应该大于5厘米。3)应该分析合适数量的暴雨以获得一个所选单位线历时的平均纵标。可以通过IUH过程的S曲线法来调整修改单位线历时。4)每场暴雨的直接径流纵标应该被减少,所以每场降雨代表10厘米的直接径流。5)流域特定历时的最终单位线是通过平均所选择降雨事件的纵标和调整结果以获得10厘米的直接径流而得到的。Constructiontheunithydrographinthiswayproducestheintegratedeffectofrunoffresultingfromarepresentativesetofequaldurationstorms.Extremerainfallintensityisnotreflectedinthedetermination.Ifintensestormsareneeded,astudyofrecordsshouldbemadetoascertaintheirinfluenceuponthedischargehydrographandactualhydrographsfromintensestorms.用这种方式构建单位线产生了径流的综合效应,这来自一个代表系列的相同历时的暴雨。极端暴雨强度不会再决定中反映出来。如果需要强暴雨,就要研究记录以判明它们对流量过程线的影响以及强暴雨的实际过程线。Essentialstepsindevelopingaunithydrographforanisolatedstormfollow:1)Analyzethestreamflowhydrographtopermitseparationofsurfacerunofffromgroundwaterflow.2)Measurethetotalvolumeofsurfacerunoff(directrunoff)fromthestormproducingtheoriginalhydrographequaltotheareaunderthehydrographaftergroundwaterbaseflowhasbeenremoved.3)Dividetheordinatesofdirectrunoffhydrographbytotaldirectrunoffvolumeininchesandplottheseresultsversustimeasunitgraphforthebasin.4)Finally,theeffectivedurationoftherunoff-producingrainforthisunitgraphmustbefoundfromthehyetograph(timehistoryofrainfallintensity)ofthestormused.建立一个独立暴雨单位线的基本过程如下:1)分析径流过程线以允许将地表径流和地下径流分离。2)在移除地下水基流后,测量暴雨产生的地表径流(直接径流)的总量,该暴雨产生了与过程线下该地区相等的原始过程线。3)以英尺为单位划分直接径流总量的直接径流过程线纵标,并将这些结果和时间绘制成一个流域的单位线。4)最后,必须从所用暴雨的雨量计图来建立产流降雨的有效历时。Proceduresotherthanthoselistedarerequiredforcomplexstormsorindevelopingsyntheticunitgraphswhenfewdataareavailable.Unithydrographscanalsobetransposedfromonebasintoanotherundercertaincircumstances.更复杂的暴雨或者当有很少可用资料情况下建立综合单位线时会需要除上述列出以外的步骤。在某些情况下,也可以将一个流域的单位线移用到另外一个流域。3.FloodRouting3.洪水演算Floodforecasting,reservoirdesign,watershedsimulation,andcomprehensivewaterresourcesplanninggenerallyutilizesomeformofroutingtechnique.Routingisusedtopredictthetemporalandspatialvariationsofafloodwaveasittraversesariverreachorreservoir,oritcanbeemployedtopredicttheoutflowhydrographfromawatershedsubjectedtoaknownamountofprecipitation.Routingtechniquesmaybeclassifiedintotwocategories-hydrologicroutingandhydraulicrouting.洪水预测、水库 设计 领导形象设计圆作业设计ao工艺污水处理厂设计附属工程施工组织设计清扫机器人结构设计 、流域仿真和水资源综合规划通常应用某种形式的演算技术。演算被用来预测一个洪峰在通过一个河段或水库时的时间和空间变化,或者它可以被用于预测受到一个已知量降水的流域的出流过程线。演算技术可以分为两类:水文演算和水力演算。Hydrologicroutingemploystheequationofcontinuitywitheitherananalyticoranassumedrelationbetweenstorageanddischargewithinthesystem.Hydraulicrouting,ontheotherhand,usesboththeequationofcontinuityandtheequationofmotion,customarilythemomentumequation.Thisparticularformutilizesthepartialdifferentialequationsforunsteadyflowinopenchannels.Itmoreadequatelydescribesthedynamicsofflowthandoesthehydrologicroutingtechnique.水文演算应用了连续性方程,表达系统内储蓄和排放之间的一个分析或假设的关系。另一方面,水力演算既应用连续性方程,也应用运动方程,习惯上是动量方程。这种特殊的形式使用偏微分方程来表达明渠的非恒定流。它比水文演算技术更充分地描述水流动力情况。Applicationsofhydrologicroutingtechniquestoproblemsoffloodprediction,evaluationsoffloodcontrolmeasures,andassessmentstheeffectsofurbanizationarenumerous.Mostfloodwarningsystemsincorporatethistechniquetopredictfloodstagesinadvanceofaseverestorm.Itisthemethodmostfrequentlyusedtosizespillwaysforsmall,intermediate,andlargedams.Additionally,thesynthesisofrunoffhydrographsfromgaugedandungaugedwatershedsispossiblebytheuseofthisapproach.水文演算技术在洪水预测问题、防洪措施评估以及城镇化影响 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中有很多应用。大多数洪水预警系统引入了该项技术以在一场剧烈暴雨之前预测洪水过程。它是确定小型、中型和大型大坝溢洪道尺寸的最常用方法。此外,在可测量和无测量资料的流域中径流水文过程的综合可能使用这种方法。Hydrologicriverroutingtechniquesareallfoundedupontheequationofcontinuity(1)whereIistheinflowratetothereach,Oistheoutflowratefromthereach,dS/dtistherateofchangeofstoragewithinthereach.水文河流演算技术都建立在连续性方程的基础上(1)其中I是到达该河段的入流速率,O是河段的出流速率,dS/dt是河段内蓄水的变化速率。Storageinastableriverreachcanbeexpectedtodependprimarilyonthedischargeintoandoutofareachandonhydrauliccharacteristicsofthechannelsection.Thestoragewithinthereachatagiventimecanbeexpressedas(2)Constantsaandnreflectthestagedischargecharacteristicsofcontrolsectionsateachendofthereach,andbandmmirrorthestage-volumecharacteristicsofthesection.ThefactorXdefinestherelativeweightsgiventoinflowandoutflowforthereach.稳定河段中的蓄水量主要取决于该河段的入流和出流,以及河流断面的水力特征值。在给定时间点的河段内蓄水量可以被表示为(2)常数a和n反映每个河段两端的阶段排放特性,且b和m反映了河段的阶段体积特性。因素X确定了河段入流和出流的相对权重。TheMuskingummethodassumesthatm/n=1andletsb/a=K,resultingin(3)whereKisthestoragetimeconstantforthereach,Xisaweightingfactorthatvariesbetween0and0.5.马斯京根法假设m/n=1且令b/a=K,得到(3)其中K是河段存储时间常数,X是在0-0.5之间的权重因数。ApplicationofthisequationhasshownthatKisusuallyreasonablyclosetothewavetraveltimethroughthereachandXaveragesabout0.2.该方程的应用已经表明K通常合理地接近于水流通过河段流动的时间,且X平均值约0.2。BehaviorofthefloodwaveduetochangesinthevalueofweightingfactorXisreadilyapparent.Theresultingdownstreamfloodwaveiscommonlydescribedbytheamountoftranslation,thatis,thetimelagandbytheamountofattenuationorreductioninpeakdischarge.ThevalueX=0.5resultsinapuretranslationofthefloodwave.权重因数X的值的变化很明显地影响着洪峰的表现。所得的下游洪峰通常被描述为移动量,即,时间滞后和衰减量或洪峰流量的减少。X=0.5时导致了洪峰的单纯的平移。ApplicationofEqs.(1)and(3)toariverreachisastraightforwardprocedureifKandXareknown.Theroutingprocedurebeginsbydividingtimeintoanumberofequalincrements,Δt,andexpressingEq.(1)infinitedifferenceform,usingsubscripts1and2todenotethebeginningandendingtimesforΔt.Thisgives-=(4)如果K和X已知,那么方程(1)和(3)在河段中的应用就是非常简单的流程。演算过程开始于将时间分成一定数量的相同增量,Δt,并将方程(1)表达为有限差分的形式,使用下标1和2表示Δt的开始和结束时间。由此得出-=(4)TheroutingtimeintervalΔtisnormallyassignedanyconvenientvaluebetweenthelimitsofK/3andK.演算时间间隔Δt通常被指定为K/3和K的界限之间的任何方便的值。ThestoragechangeintheriverreachduringtheroutingintervalfromEq.(3)is(5)andsubstitutingthisintoEq.(4)resultsintheMuskingumroutingequation(6)InwhichNotethatKandΔtmusthavethesametimeunitsandalsothatthethreecoefficientssumto1.0.方程(3)中演算间隔中河段内的蓄水变化为马斯京根方程(5)将此式带入方程(4)中得到(6)其中注意K和Δt必须有相同的单位且三个系数和为1.0。TheoreticalstabilityofthenumericalmethodisaccomplishedifΔtfallsbetweenthelimits2KXand2K(1-X).ThetheoreticalvalueofKisthetimerequiredforanelemental(kinematic)wavetotraversethereach.Itisapproximatelythetimeintervalbetweeninflowandoutflowpeaks,ifdataareavailable.Ifnot,thewavevelocitycanbeestimatedforvariouschannelshapesasafunctionofaveragevelocityVforanyrepresentativeflowrateQ.VelocityforsteadyuniformflowcanbeestimatedbyeithertheManningorChezyequation.如果Δt在2KX和2K(1-X)之间,那么数值计算方法就满足理论稳定性。K的理论值是一个元素(运动)峰穿过河段所需的时间。如果可以获得数据,那么它大约是流入及流出峰值之间的时间间隔。如果不是,波速可以对不同的渠道形状作为代表性流量Q的平均速率的函数来估算。稳定均匀流的速度可以通过曼宁或谢才公式来估算Since,I1andI2areknownforeverytimeincrement,routingisaccomplishedbysolvingEq.(6)successivetimeincrementsusingeachO2asO1forthenexttimeincrement.因此,I1和I2是已知的每个时间增值,并通过将O2作为下个时间增量的O1来解决方程(6)的连续的时间增量,从而完成演算。4.WaterQualityModels4.水质模型Becausewaterqualityisinextricablylinkedtowaterquantity,itisimportantforthehydrologisttounderstandthesignificanceofdevelopingmodelingtechniquesthatcanaccommodatebothfeatures.由于水质与水量密不可分,因此了解开发能够适用于两个特性的建模技术对水文学家来说是很重要的。Awaterqualitymodelisamathematicalstatementorsetofstatementsthatequatewaterqualityatapointofinteresttocausativefactors.Ingeneral,waterqualitymodelsaredesignedto(1)acceptasinput,constituentconcentrationversustimeatpointsofentrytothesystem,(2)simulatethemixingandreactionkineticsofthesystem,and(3)synthesizeatime-distributedoutputatthesystemoutlet.水质模型是一个或一系列的数学表达,描述了所关注点的诱发因素的水质。通常来讲,水质模型被设计于(1)作为输入条件,在系统入口处浓度与时间的关系,(2)模拟混合及系统的动力学反应,以及(3)综合为一个系统出口处随时间分布的输出。Eitherstochastic(containingprobabilisticelements)ordeterministicapproachesmaybetakenindevelopingmethodsforpredictingpollutionalloads.Theformertechniqueisbasedondeterminingthelikelihood(frequency)ofaparticularoutputqualityresponsebystatisticalmeans.Thisissimilartofrequencyanalysisoffloodsorlowflows.Waterqualityrecordsshouldbeavailableforatleast5years(andpreferablymuchlonger)ifestimatesofreturnperiodsforinfrequenteventsaretobereliable.随机(包含概率元素)或确定性方法都可能被用于开发预测污染负荷的方法。前者技术基于通过统计方法确定的一个特定的输出质量响应的可能性(频率)。这类似于洪水或低流量的频率分析。如果要求可靠的偶发事件重现期的估计,那么就要至少获得5年(最好更长)的水质记录。Thedeterministicapproach(outputexplicitlydeterminedforagiveninput)requiresthatamodelbedevelopedtorelatewaterqualityloadingtoaknownorassumedhydrologicinput.Suchamodelcanrangefromanempiricalconcentrationdischargerelationtoaphysicalequationrepresentingthehydrochemicalcycle.Theultimatemodelingtechniqueisthatwhichbestdefinestheactualmechanismtriggeringthewaterqualityresponse.Thecauseofagivenstateofpollutioncanthenbespecificallyidentified.确定性方法(对于给定的输入明确地确定输出)要求一个模型被开发于将水质负荷与一个已知的或假设的水文输入关联起来。这样的一个模型可以从一个浓度流量的经验关系到一个物理方程,描述水化学循环。最终的建模技术最好地定义了触发水质响应的实际机制。随后即可具体确定给定污染状态的起因。Waterqualitymodelsvaryintheircomplexity.Theirnaturedependsontheapplicationtobemadeofthemodel,theavailabilityofdata,andthelevelofunderstandingofthehydrochemicalandhydrobiologicalprocessesinvolved.Unfortunately,thecomplexitiesoftheseprocesses,whicharegreat,makethedifficultiesassociatedwithhydrologicalmodelingseemsmallincomparison.水质模型的复杂性各有不同。其本质取决于作为模型的应用、数据的可获得性以及对于所涉及的水化学和水生物学过程的理解程度。可惜,这些过程巨大的复杂性使得与水文模拟相关联的复杂性看起来相对较小。Ingeneral,waterqualitymodelsshouldpermitacceptanceofinputsintermsofpollutant(constituent)concentrationversustimeatpointsofentryintothesystem,descriptionofthemixingandreactionkineticsinthestreamelementorgroundwaterelementofconcern,andsynthesisofatime-distributedoutputindicatingpollutantconcentrationattheoutletoftheelement(segment)beingmodeled.Ananalogymaybedrawntothestreamflowrouting,whichisperformedinadownstreamsequencefromonestreamchannelsegmenttoanother.Inthecaseofwaterqualitymodeling,thecommonrepresentationisthecalculationofchangeinconstituentconcentrationasitpassesthroughsuccessivestatesofthewaterbodybeingmodeled.通常来讲,水质模型应该允许在系统进口处的污染物(组分)浓度相对时间的输入形式,所关注的水流元素或地下水元素混合和反应动力学的描述,以及综合成一个随时间分布输出,该输出描述所模拟的出口元素(分段)的污染物浓度。可以对水流演算打个比喻,这发生在向下游的从一个向另一个的水流通道段中。在水质模拟的情况下,通常的表达是对在通过被模拟连续水体时组分浓度变化的计算。Asinthecaseofotherwaterresourcesmodelingprocesses,theapproachmaybedeterministicorstochastic.Inthecaseofwaterqualitymodels,thestochasticapproachisoftenruledoutbecauseactualrecordsofwaterqualityparametersareunavailableforlongenoughperiodstopermitfrequencymethodstobeused.Ofcourse,generatedsequencescanbeusedforthispurposeifadequatemathematicalstatementsrepresentingthekineticsofthesystemcanbedevelopedandtheirparametersdetermined.对于其它水资源模拟过程,其方法可以是确定性或随机性的。对于水质模型,随机方法往往被排出在外,因为不能获得足够长时段内的水质参数的实际记录,所以不允许应用概率方法。当然,如果可以开发表示该系统的动力学适当的数学命题,且它们的参数可以确定,那么所产生的序列可以被用于此目的。Thedeterministicapproachtowaterqualitymodelingrequiresthatrelationsbetweenwaterqualityloadingandthefloworhydraulicfeaturesofthesystembeestablishedandthattheappropriatechemicaland/orbiologicalreactionsbetractableforsolutions.Wheretheory-basedrelationscannotbeemployed,empiricalrelationsareoftenused.Theoptimummodeltousewouldbetheonebestdefiningtheactualwaterqualityresponseofthesystem.Manymodelshavebeendeveloped.水质模拟的确定性方法须要建立水质负荷与系统水流或水动力特性之间的关系,以及对于解决方案已预处理的合适的化学和/或生物反应。其中,不能使用基于理论的公式,但是经常应用经验公式。要应用的最佳模型将最好地限定系统的实际水质响应。很多模型已经被建立起来。Pollutantsmaybeclassifiedasconservativeornonconservative(constituentshavingtime-dependentdecays);somewhatmorespecificallyasorganic,inorganic,radiological,thermal,orbiological;andfinallytheymaybecategorizedbyspecificformssuchasBOD,phosphorus,nitrogen,bacteria,viruses,andspecifictoxicsubstances.Thesepollutantsmaybeloadedintoawatercourseorgroundwatersystemfromeitherpointornonpointsources.污染物可以分为保守型和非保守型(组分随时间衰减);稍微更具体地为有机、无机、放射性、温度或生物;且最终它们可以被分为具体的形式,如BOD、磷、氮、细菌、病毒和具体的有毒物质。这些污染物可能通过点源或非点源被加入水体或地下水系统中。Thetimerateofdeliveryofapollutantmustbedeterminedifitscharacteristicsaretobemodifiedbymanagementpracticesoritsimpactonsomeelementofthesystemevaluated.Forexample,theconsequencesofsomequantityofsiltdeliveredtoalakewouldnotbethesameifitwereintroducedoveraperiodof5daysasopposedto2hr.Thusmonitoringofwaterqualitymustgenerallybeonacontinuousbasisifthedataaretobeofvalueforwaterresourcesplanningand/ordevelopingcontinuousmodelingprocesses.如果要通过管理实践或者对所评估系统一些元素的影响来改动污染物的特性,那么就必须确定污染物的传输时间速率。比如,引用到历时5天而不是2小时的期限,输送向一个湖的某些数量的淤泥的结果就不相同。因此,如果数据对水资源规划和/或发展中的连续建模过程是有利用价值的,那么监测水质一般必须在连续的基础上。Unstablepollutantssuchasradioactivematerials,heat,biochemicaloxygendemand,andlivingorganismsallhavetime-dependentdecaysandarethusnonconservativeinnature.Fordealingwithsuchconstituents,itisnecessarythatboththemixingpropertiesandthereactionkineticsofthesystembeapproximated.Ontheotherhand,manyinorganicpollutantsareconservativeinnatureandtheirhandlingdependsmainlyonanabilitytomodelthemixingmechanicsofthereceivingbodyofwater.不稳定的污染物如放射性物质、热、生化需氧量和活的生物体都随时间衰减并因此具有非保守性质。要处理这类组分,那么混合性质和系统动力学反应就必须相似。另一方面,很多无机物污染物性质保守且它们的处理主要依赖于一个模拟的水体接收混合力学的能力。Theproblemassociatedwithmodelingchemicalandbiologicalchangesinawaterbodyaremanyandcomplex.Thefieldconditionsencounteredinnaturesystemarehighlyvariedandoftennegatethevalidityofreactionrateandothermechanismsdeterminedunderlaboratoryconditions.Furthermore,pollutantsderivedfromnonpointsourcesaresubjectedtomanyalterationsintheirtravelsoverand/orthroughthegroundbeforetheyreachawatercourse.Thehighlyvariedchemical,biological,andhydrauliccharacteristicsofthelandmustbedealtwithinestimatingpollutantloadingsfromthesesources.Althoughqualitativedescriptionsofhydrochemicalandhydrobiologicalprocessesareeasytocomeby,theirquantificationissomethingelseagain.Fortunately,insomecases,empiricalrelationsbetweenpollutantconcentrationandstreamfloworotherhydrologicvariablescanbeusedtodescribewaterqualityloadingmechanismsthatcannotbeobtainedonamoretheoreticalbasis.Itshouldbestressed,however,thatamodelisonlyasgoodasthedataandtheoryonwhichitisbased.与模拟水体中化学和生物变化相关的问题有很多且复杂。在自然界系统遇到的现场条件具有高度多样性,且经常否定反应速率和在实验室条件下确定的其它机制的有效性。此外,来自非点源的污染物受到在到达一个水道前通过或穿过的地面的输运中很多变化的影响。在估算这些污染源负荷时必须处理土地的高度变化的化学、生物和水力特性。虽然水化学和水生生物过程的定性描述很容易得到,但是它们的量化又是另一回事。幸运的是,在一些情况下,可以应用污染物浓度和水流速率或其它水文变量之间的经验公式来描述水质负荷机制,而这并不能在一个更加理论的基础上获得。然而,应当强调的是,一个模型的好坏与其所基于的数据和理论相关。5.WaterResourcesPlanning5.水资源规划Inaccordancewiththeabovediscussionweshall,firstofall,trytoformulatetheobjectiveofwaterresourcesplanning.Thismaybedoneinseveralways,eachwithitsownmeritsandshortcomings.Letusconsiderthefollowingdefinitionandsubsequentqualifications:Theobjectiveofwaterresourcesplanningistomakethemosteffectiveuseoftheavailablewaterresourcestomeetalltheforeseeableshort-termandlong-termneedsofthenation.Thewords“mosteffective”implythatthewell-beingofallthepeopleshouldbemaximized,whileatthesametimethetotalphysicaleffortisminimized.Thewords“short-termandlong-term”implythatwaterresourcesmustbemanagedandconservednotonlyforthisgenerationbutforgenerationstocome.Theinterpretationoftheword“needs”shouldgobeyondphysicalneedsofindustryandagriculture,intotherealmofspiritualneeds.TousethewordsoftheU.S.President’sWaterResourcesCouncil(1962):Properwaterresourcesmanagementrequiresthatfullconsiderationbegivento…”theinspiration,enjoymentandeducationofthepeople”.根据上述的讨论,我们首先应该确定水资源规划的目标。这可以通过很多方式确定,每种方式都有其优点和缺点。我们考虑以下的定义和后续的资质:水资源规划的目标是最有效地利用可利用的水资源以满足国家所有的可见的短期和长期(用水)需求。“最有效”一词意味着所有人们的福祉必须被最大化,且同时人力物力消耗最小化。“短期和长期”一词是指水资源必须被管控,能够实现当代和后续世世代代的维持利用。对“需求”的解释应该超过工业和农业的物质需求,也考虑到人们的精神境界的需求。用美国水资源委员会会长的话说(1962):适当的水资源管理须要充分考虑到人们的……精神、享受和教育。Themostappropriategeographicalunitforwaterresourcesplanningisusuallytheriverdrainagebasin.Inthiswaywecanrealizetheadvantagesofmultipleuse,reconcileconflictinginterestsofwateruse,andachievethebestco-ordinationbetweenallinterestsconcerned.Theseinterestsmayverywellextendintootherareasofresourcesdevelopment,suchasforestry,agriculture,andmining.Itisnotunlikelythatitisfoundthattheplanningstudiesshouldbeextendedtogroupsofcloselyrelateddrainagebasins.对于水资源规划最合适的地理单元通常是河流流域。通过这种方式我们能够实现水资源的多用途利用的优势,调和水资源利用利益冲突,并实现所有利益攸关者间的最佳协调。这些利益很可能延伸到资源开发的其他领域,如林业,农业和采矿业。人们发现规划研究应扩展到密切相关的流域群体,这并非不可能。Todiscussallelementsofwaterresourcesplanninginsuchamannerthatalogicalsequenceofthoughtismaintained,whileattheendafullunderstandingofthesubjectisacquired,isnotasimpleassignment.Manyelementsareinterrelatedandonewouldhavetomovebackandforthoverthesubjectmaterialseveraltimestobringthemallintoproperfocus.Themannerandcontentofdiscussionthathasbeenselectedforthepresentpurposefollowssomewhatalongthelinesofthereport“BasicConsiderationsinWaterResourcesPlanning”,preparedbytheCommitteeonWaterResourcesPlanning,ASCE,ofwhichtheauthorwasamemberwhenthereportwasbeingprepared.Asafirstaidtothefollowingdiscussionsletusbrieflyreviewwhatisinvolvedinwaterresourcesplanningbeforeweproceedtodetails.要通过维持思维逻辑顺序且最后能够完全理解对象的方式,来讨论水资源规划的所有因素,并非一件易事。很多因素相互影响,须要不断地调整各因素以实现其占有合适的权重。为实现本宗旨的方式和内容在某种程度上沿袭了美国土木工程协会水资源规划委员会 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中的架构,准备该报告时,作者是该协会的成员。作为对接下来的讨论的紧急储备,让我们在进入到细节之前,先简要地回归一下水资源规划中所包含的内容。1)Basicdata(beforeanyplanscanbemade,factsandfiguresmustbecollected).(1)streamflow(acollectionofalldatapertainingtorun-off,thissectionbecomesineffectthewaterresourcesinventoryofthebasin).(2)geophysical(mapsofthebasinshowingstreams,topography,soils,geologicalformations,forestcover,andminerals).(3)economic(howmanypeopleliveinthebasinandwhatdotheproduce).(4)jurisdictional(whatlevelsofgovernmentareinvolvedandhowdotheyoperate).1)基础数据(在任何计划实施前,事实和数据都必须收集)。(1)河流流量(收集所有有关径流的资料,实际上这一部分将成为流域水资源清单。)(2)物探(流域出流,地貌,土壤,地质构造,森林覆盖率和矿物质图。)(3)经济(居住在该流域的人口数,以及其从事产业。)(4)司法管辖区(涉及哪些各级政府以及它们如何运作)。2)Economicbaseprojection(anestimateofthefuturegrowthofthepopulationandtheeconomyinthebasin).(1)forthenearfuture.(2)forthefarfuture.2)经济基础投影(对流域内未来人口和经济增长的估计)(1)近期。(2)远期。3)Waterrequirements(howmuchwaterisneededfordifferentpurposes,inaccordancewiththeeconomicbaseprojection).(1)domesticandindustrialuse.(2)irrigation.(3)navigation.(4)power.(5)floodcontrol(thisisaproblemofcontrollingexcessflowsratherthanconsumptiveuse).(6)recreation.3)用水需求(不同用途所需水量,由经济基础投影确定)。(1)生活和工业用水。(2)灌溉。(3)航运。(4)发电。(5)防洪(这是更多的是要解决控制过多流量问题而不是消耗性利用)。(6)娱乐。4)Developmentofplan(theaboveisolatedstudiesarenowintegrated,reservoirs,canals,hydraulicstructuresarelaidoutsothatmaximumefficiencyisobtained).(1)priorityofwateruse(ifthedemandforwaterexceedstheavailability,apriorityofusemustfirstbeestablished).(2)alternativeplans(avarietyofmulti-purposeplans,allaimingatmaximizingthetotalbenefits,isprepared).(3)economicanalysis(allplansaresubjectedtoabenefit-costanalysis).(4)selectionofplan(basedonthebenefit-costanalysisintangibleaspects,andsocialconsideration,achoiceismade).4)计划的制定(上述独立的研究现在被整合起来,水库,运河,水力结构被布置出来以获得最大的效率。)(1)水资源利用优先级(如果对水的需求超过供应,必须首先建立使用的优先级)。(2)替代计划(准备各种多功能的计划,所有都旨在最大限度地提高总收益)。(3)经济分析(所有计划都要经过成本-收益分析)。(4)方案的选择(基于成本收益无形方面分析和社会考量做出选择)。6.WaterResourcesforSustainableDevelopment6.水资源可持续发展6.1Introduction6.1引言Theadjective“sustainable”stemsfromaLatinverb“sustinere”(touphold).ThecorrespondingEnglishverb,“tosustain”,beinginusesincethelateMiddleAges,hasmeaningssuchas:tomaintain,tokeepgoing,tokeepinbeing,tokeepfromfalling,tocarryon,towithstand,tobear,tosupportlife,toprovideforlifeorbodilyneeds,tofurnishwiththenecessitiesoflife(Little,1972).Manyofthesemeaningsareencapsulatedintheterm“sustainabledevelopment”whichisbeingbroadlyusednowadays.Infact,“sustainabledevelopment”isanoldconceptthathasbeenusedinthemanagementofrenewablenaturalresourcestoensurethattherateofharvestingaresourceissmallerthantherateofitsrenewal.AsmentionedintheBrundtlandReport(WCED,1978),“humanityhastheabilitytomakedevelopmentsustainable-toensurethatitmeetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds”.Thisaimshouldbeachievedwhileminimizingthelosses(maximizingthegains)toeconomic,socialandenvironmentalsystem.形容词“sustainable”(可持续发展))源于拉丁文的动词“sustinere”(维护)。其相应的英文动词,“tosustain”,自在中世纪后期的就被使用,有这样的含义:保持,继续前进,保持发生,防止降低,坚持下去,承受,承担,支持生活,提供生命或身体的需求,提供生活的必需品(Little,1972年)。这些含义中有些被封存到当今被广泛运用的“可持续发展”这个术语之中。事实上,“可持续发展”是一个旧的概念,已被用于可再生自然资源的管理,以确保获取资源的速度比它的再生速率小。正如布伦特兰报告(WCED,1978),“人类有能力实现可持续发展,以确保它既能满足当代人的需求,又不损害后代人满足其需要的能力”。在实现这个目标的同时,应该尽量减少对经济、社会和环境系统的损失(最大化其收益)。Theavailabilityofwaterinadequatequantityandqualityisnecessaryconditionforsustainabledevelopment.Water,thebasicelementofthelifesupportsystemoftheplanet,isindispensabletosustainanyformoflifeandvirtuallyeveryhumanactivity.保质足量的水资源的可利用性是可持续发展的必要条件。水,作为地球的生命支持系统的基本要素,是维持任何形式的生命和几乎所有的人类活动所不可缺少的。Theannualrunoffintotheoceansexceeds40000km3.Withdrawalscurrentlyreaching3800km3constituteonlyasmallportion(about9%)oftheaverageannualrunoff.Atfirstsightthismaylooklikearelativeabundanceofwater.However,theseapparentlycomfortingglobalfiguresarelargelymisleadingasfaraswateravailabilityatsmallerscalesisconcerned.进入海洋的年径流量超过40000km3。目前的水利用量达到3800km3,只是年径流量的一小部分(约9%)。乍一看水资源可能相对出丰富。然而,只要考虑到小范围内的可用水量,这些看似安慰性的数字就会在很大程度上误导人们。Globalwaterconsumptionhasincreasedaboutsevenfoldsincethebeginningofthe20thcentury.Thishasbeencausedbothbypopulationgrowthandbyincreaseofthepercapitawateruse.Thecontinuingpopulationgrowthwithconsequencesforfoodproductionandjustifiedaspirationsofnationsandindividualstowardsbetterlivingconditionswillundoubtedlycausethedemandforwatertogrowfurther.AnadequateandreliablesupplyofwaterofproperqualityfortheentirepopulationoftheGlobeandforpreservingthehydrological,biologicalandchemicalfunctionsofecosystemsisstillaremotegoal.Theincreaseddemandalreadycannotbemetinanumberoflocationsandatalltimesatpresentunderthenaturalvariabilitiesoftemperatureandprecipitation.自20世纪初,全球用水量已增加了约七倍。这既是由于人口增长也是由于人均用水量的增加所致。持续的人口增长与粮食生产的影响和国家及人们争取更好的生活条件合的理愿望,无疑会造成用水需求进一步的增长。对于全球人口的足量和可信赖并且水质可靠的水供应,以及保留水文、生态系统的生物化学功能仍然是一个长远的目标。在温度和降水的自然变异下,增长的需求已经在一些地方现在任何时候不能够满足。Watershortageisthereforelikelytobethemostdominantwaterproblemintheforthcomingcentury,jeopardizingsustainabledevelopment.Thenumberofcountriessubjecttowaterscarcity,definedaswateravailabilitybelow500m3percapitaperyear,reaches12atpresentandislikelytogrowto19by2025(Gleick,1993).Someassessmentsforeseethattheportionoftheglobalhumanpopulationsubjecttowaterscarcitymaygrowto35%aroundtheyear2025.Inanumberofcountriessubjecttoadynamicpopulationgrowth,adramaticdropofthepercapitaavailabilityofwaterhasalreadytakenplaceandaggravationofthisprocessisforeseentosubstantiallybelowthelevelrecognizednowasthethresholdofscarcity.TheUNWaterConferencein1977agreedthat“allpeoples,whatevertheirstageofdevelopmentandtheirsocialandeconomicconditions,havetherighttohaveaccesstodrinkingwaterinquantitiesandofaqualityequaltotheirbasicneeds”.Accesstosafewaterhasthereforebecomeakindofhumanright.TheUNInternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade(1981-1990)hadthegoalofarrangingforaccesstosafedrinkingwaterandsanitationforthewholepopulationoftheGlobe.Yet,attheendoftheDecade,despitealltheunquestionableachievements,alargenumberofhumanbeings(oftheorderofonebillion)stilllackedcleanandsafewater,largelybecausepopulationgrowthhasoutweighedalltheprogressachievedinwatersupply.Thenumberofpeoplewithoutsafewatersupplyhasbeengrowinguptopresent.因此在即将到来的一个世纪,水资源短缺有可能成为最主要的水问题,危及可持续发展。定义为人均年可用水量低于500m³而受到水资源短缺影响的国家数,现在已经达到了12个,并且将在2025年达到19个(格雷克,1993)。一些评估预见到到2025年左右全球人口受到水资源短缺的部分可能会增长到35%。在一些受到人口增长影响的国家里,人均可用水量已经急剧下降,并且这个过程的加剧可以预见到其基本上低于公认的水资源短缺阈值水平。1977年联合国水资源会议达成一致:“所有各国人民,无论其发展阶段和社会经济条件,都有权获得满足其基本需求的足量的、保质的水资源”。因此,获得安全饮水已经成为一种人权。联合国《国际饮水供应和环境卫生十年》(1981-1990)曾设立了为全球人口安排获得安全饮用水和卫生设施的目标。然而,在该十年结束时,尽管取得了不容置疑的成就,很多人(十亿人口中的一个序列)仍然缺乏清洁和安全的水,主要是因为人口增长压倒了一切的供水所取得的进展。未能获得安全饮用水供应的人口数量一直增长至今。AccordingtoWHO,about80%ofalldiseasesandonethirdofalldeathsindevelopingcountriesarerelatedtowater-relateddiseases,suchasdiarrhea,malaria,schistosomiasis,riverblindness,Guineaworm,andotherswhichkillgloballyperhaps25000humanbeingsaday-over17peopleoneminute.根据世界卫生组织,发展中国家中大约80%的疾病和1/3的死亡与与水有关系的疾病有关系,比如腹泻,疟疾,血吸虫病,河盲症,几内亚蠕虫及其他,这些每天可能在全球杀死25000人,即每分钟超过17人。6.2ConcludingRemarks6.2结束语Sustainabledevelopmentrequiresanintegratedapproachandaholisticperspective,inwhichastructureofinter-linkedcomponentsistakenintoaccount.Thisstructurecontainsnotonlyhydrologicalorwaterresourcescomponentsbutalsoanumberofothercomponents,suchasenvironmental,economic,demographic,socio-culturalandinstitutionalsubsystems.可持续发展要求有一个综合的方法和全局观念,其中需要考虑一个相互关联的结构部分。这种结构不仅包含水文或水资源组分,也要有一些其它组分,如环境、经济、人口、社会文化和机构的子系统。Institutionalissuesplayanextremelyimportantpartinstrivingtowardssustainabledevelopment.Typically,watermanagementisfragmentedamongseveralinstitutions.Atthenationallevel,theexistenceofacentralwateroffice,suchasaMinistryofWaterResources,thatdealswithallaspectsofwatermanagementisveryrare.Usuallyseveralministries(e.g.environment,agriculture,forestry,industry,navigation,construction,interior,etc.)holdresponsibilitiesforportionsofwaterproblems.Frequentlythecoordinationbetweenthesenationalbodiesisverylimitedornon-existent.Theadventofstrongwateragencieswithaclearmandate,adequateresourcesandtechnicalskillsisverywelcome.Duetothemulti-facetednatureofwaterissues,itisnecessary,thoughdifficult,foranagencytooperateacrossdisciplinaryandjurisdictionallines.机构问题在努力实现可持续发展方面发挥着极其重要作用。一般而言,水资源管理职能分散在几个机构之间。在国家层面上存在一个水资源中心机构进行各方面的水资源管理是非常罕见的,通常是几个部委(如环境,农业,林业,工业,航海,建筑,室内等)对部分水问题进行负责。这些国家部门之间的联系通常是有限的甚至不存在。有明确的授权、充足的资源和技术技能的强大的水务机构出现是非常受欢迎的。由于水问题的多样性,对于一个机构跨学科和管辖运营是非常必要的,尽管这样做很难。IntheWMO’ssurveyINFOHYDRO(WMO,1995),175countriesreportedonhydrologicaldatacollectionactivities.However,amongtherespondentstherewere480agencies,thatisonaveragenearlythreeagenciespercountry.Thisillustratesthefragmentationofhydrologyatthenationallevel.据水资源管理组织的调查INFOHYDRO(水资源管理组织,1995),175个国家报道了其对水文数据收集的活动。然而,这些国家中共有480机构,即每个国家平均近三个机构。这证明了在国家层面上水管理的分散性。Asimilarfragmentationofwateraffairscanalsobeobservedattheinternationallevel.Thereexistsnopowerfulintergovernmentalwateragency.TherearetwodozenorsoagenciesoftheUnitedNationsfamilydealingwithwater.However,waterunitsorprojectsintheseagenciesareusuallyoutsiders,clearlybeyondthemainstream.水务上相似的分散性也可以在国际层面上进行观察。没有强大的国际水资源机构。在联合国这个家庭里就有大约20多个机构处理水问题。然而,这些机构中的用水单位或项目通常是局外人,明显地不在主流之中。Itisproposed(UNCED,1993)tobasesustainabledevelopmentontheprinciplesof:(1)decentralizationanddevolutionofresponsibilityinwaterandenvironmentalmatterstothepartiesinvolvedatthelowestlevelinsociety(subsidiaryprinciple);(2)localandprivatesectorparticipation;and(3)ademand-drivencostrecoveryapproachandequitablechargingtoenhancesustainabilityandenforceablelegislationatalllevels.Further,itisessentialtoreachsignificantportionsofcommunitiesandinvolvethemintheprocessofconsultationtomakethemunderstand,acceptandsupportplans.1993年联合国环发会议建议将可持续发展建立在以下原则上:(1)将水和环境问题的责任以最低水平地下放和移交到社会团体上(辅助原则);(2)地方和私营部门参与;(3)通过需求驱动的成本回收方式和公平的收费来在所有水平上提高可持续性和强化法律的可执行性。此外,有必要到达社区明显的部分,并让他们参与到协商的过程中,使他们理解,接受并支持计划。权力下放和社区参与的原则,带来了教育和 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雄心勃勃的挑战。Agenda21(UNCED,1993)proposesthatsustainabilitybebuiltintonationalaccounting.Nationsshouldsetprioritiesandconstructimplementationplansforsustainabledevelopment.21世纪议程(联合国环发会议,1993年)提出的可持续发展建设成为国家核算。国家应该设置优先级,构建可持续发展的实施计划。Waterisnotafreegoodsanymorebutratheraneconomicgoods.Achangeofphilosophyisneeded;ratherthantryingtofulfillincreasingwaterdemandsanddevisenewcostlysupplysources,oneshouldstrivetowardsincreasingtheefficiencyofwateruse,tryingto“domorewithless”.水再也不是一种免费的商品,而是一种经济商品。理念的改变是必要的,而不是试图去满足不断增加的用水需求并制订新的昂贵的供应源,要努力实现提高水的利用效率,努力做到“少花钱多办事”。Thereisstillmuchtoachieveintheareaofwaterdemandmanagement.Waterpricingislikelytobeincreasinglyimportant,coveringnotonlythecostofdevelopmentandwatersupplybutalsothecostofresources,inthesenseofforegoneopportunities.Tradeablewaterpermitsofferanothermechanism.在水需求管理的领域仍有许多需要实现。从可预知的机会意义来说,水定价可能会变得越来越重要,这不仅包含发展和供水成本,也要包括资源成本。可交易的取水许可提供了另一种机制。Thereareseveralcaseswhentherecentbehavioroftimeseriesofhydrologicalvariablesdifferssignificantlyfromthehistoricalmeans.Toalargeextentthishasbeencausedbydirectanthropogenicreasons-humanactivitieslikedeforestation,urbanization,etc.However,manyscientistsattributeapartofthesechangestomaninducednonstationarityofthenaturalclimaticsystem;toclimatevariabilityandchange(greenhouseeffect).Forexample,decreasesofprecipitationandwaterlevelsinanumberofriversandlakesinAfricahavebeenobserved.Anincreasingseverityofextremeeventshasbeenreported,withsuchexamplesastherecentfloodsontheMississippiandontheRhine.Someexpertsexplaintheaboveobservationsbysuchphysicalmechanismsaschangesofprevailingatmosphericcirculationpatternsandofdirectionsofatmosphericmoistureadvection.Thepossibilityofclimatechangemayaddanotherdimensiontothecontextofsustainabledevelopment.存在着几种情况中当前的时间序列水文变量与历史均值有显著的不同。在很大程度上这是由直接的人为原因造成的,如砍伐森林、城市化等。然而,许多科学家将这些变化中的一部分归于自然气候系统中人为的非平稳性,归于气候变化性和变化(温室效应影响)。比如说,人们已经观察到了非洲一些河湖中的降雨的减少和水位降低。极端事件所增加的严重性已有报道,比如最近发生在密西西比河和莱茵河的洪水。一些科学家通过如下的物理机制解释了上述观察:现行的大气环流模式和大气中水分平流方向的变化。气候变化的可能性可能会对可持续发展背景增加另一个维度。7.WaterRequirements7.用水需求7.1DomesticandIndustrialWaterRequirements7.1生活和工业用水需求Afterhavingestimatedtheprobablefuturepopulationandtheireconomicactivity,wemustnowdeterminetheassociatedwaterrequirements.Itshouldbenotedattheoutsetthatinitialestimatesmayhavetobereviewedandmodifiedatalaterstageintheplanningprocess.First,becausethedemandforwateristosomeextentafunctionofthecostofprovidingwater.Sinceinthebeginningwedonotknowyetthecostofwaterdevelopmentplans,wecannotestimatepreciselythewaterrequirements.Second,becausesomewaterrequirementsmaybeinconflictwithothers.Iftheseconflictscannotberesolved,theoriginalestimatesmustberevised.Third,becausemostwaterrequirementsareonlypartlyconsumptive.Thereforeitmaybepossible,byappropriatereuseofwater,toachieveatotalwaterrequirementsthatissubstantiallylessthanthesumoftheindividualrequirements.Sincemostoftheseaspectsarenotfullyrevealeduntilacertainamountofplanninghastakenplace,itisevidentthatagooddealofmovingbackandforthoverthesubjectmaterialisrequired.Inthefollowingparagraphsweshallpretendtoconductaninquiryformakingthefirsttentativeestimates.Whatquestionswouldtheplanningengineerbegintoaskwithrespecttopossiblewaterusesandcontrolrequirementsbeforehewouldevenbegintothinkintermsofengineeringplans?在评估将来可能的人口及其经济活动后,我们现在必须确定与之相关的用水需求。开始时应当指出的是,初步测算可能会在规划过程后期阶段进行审查和修改。首先,因为对水的需求在一定程度上与供水成本成函数关系。因为在开始的时候我们还不知道水资源开发计划的成本,所以我们就不能准确地估计用水需求。其次,因为一些用水需求可能会与其它相冲突。如果这些冲突不能解决,就必须修订初始的评估。再次,因为大多数的用水需求都只有部分是消耗性用水。因此,通过适当的回水利用,实现总的用水需求基本上小于各自足球的综合是可能的。由于大多数的方面是直到做了一定的规划才能充分显现,因此很明显的大量的对主体材料比重的调整是必需的。在下面的段落中我们将假装进行一个调查以进行第一个试验性的估计。在规划工程师开始按照工程计划考虑之前,他会对可能的水利用途径和用水需求控制方面提出什么问题?Assumingthatwehaveanestimateofthepopulationandthetypeandsizeofindustries,itisafairlysimplemattertoestimatetheassociatedwaterrequirements.Percapitarequirementsofwaterforhouseholduserangefromafewgallonsperdayinprimitivecommunities,to60gal/dayincommunitieswithahighstandardoflivingwhereairconditioningandwateringoflawnsisrequired.Percapitarequirementsofentirecities,includingmunicipal,commercial,andindustrialuse,mayrangefrom40-400gal/day,dependingonstandardoflivingandtypeofindustries.Whentheindustrialrequirementsbecomerelativelyimportant,theyshouldbeestimatedseparately.TomakesuchestimatesonewouldhavetoconsultpertinentliteraturesuchasthereportsbytheUnitedStatesSenateCommitteeonNationalWaterResources(1960).假设我们已有一份对人口和工业类型规模的评估,那么评估相应的用水需求就是一件相当简单的事了。在原始社会中,人均对家庭供水的需求在每天几加仑内变化,到需要空调和草坪浇水的高标准社区生活这个数字就达到了60加仑每天。整个城市的人均用水需求,包括市政、商业和工业用水,可能在40-400加仑每天内变化,这取决于生活标准和工业类型。当工业需求变得相对重要的时候,它们就应该被分开评估。要做出这样的评估就要查阅有关文献,比如美国参议院委员会作出的国家水资源报告(1960)。Itshouldbenotedthatthetotaldomesticandindustrialwaterrequirementsareusuallysmall,comparedwiththeavailablewatersuppliesinthedrainagebasin.Moreoveronlysome5-10percentofthetotalintakeisconsumptivelyused,theremainderreturningtotheriversystem.Althoughthetotalrequirementsarerelativelysmall,itmustbeemphasizedthattheyareofthehighestpriorityandthatagoodqualityofwaterisneeded.应该说明的是,生活和工业用水需求相对于流域内可供水量来说相对较小。并且整个饮水量中只有约5-10%为消耗性用水,其余则返回到河流系统中。尽管整个用水需求相对较小,但是必须强调的是它们拥有最高优先级并且需要良好的水质。Associatedwiththedomesticandindustrialwaterrequirementsarethewastedisposalrequirements.Thestreamflowrequirementstodilutemunicipalandindustrialeffluentsothatadequatesanitaryriverconditionsaremaintainedmaybe10oreven100timeslargerthanthepure-waterintake.Theexactamountdependslargelyuponthedegreeoftreatmentthatindustriesandmunicipalitieswillapplytotheirwaste.与生活和工业用水需求相关的是废水处理需求。稀释市政和工业废水以便保持足够卫生的河流条件的径流蓄水量,可能比净水饮水量大10倍或100倍。确切的数字在很大程度上取决于工业和市政应用到其废水处理的程度。Withrespecttowastedisposalrequirementsthefollowingmaybenoted.Firstofall,whensourcesofpollutionareorganicinnatureandsufficientlyfarapartagooddealofnaturalsanitationintheriverwilltakeplace,withtheresultthatthesamewatercanbeusedagainforcarryingoffwaste.Second,forthepurposeofwastedisposal,waterdoesnothavetobeaspureasfortheirrigationorwatersupply.Therefore,alakeorstreamwithalkalineorsalinewater,unsuitableforotherpurpose,mayverywellbeusedforpollutionabatement.关于废水处理需求,可能要注意以下方面。首先,当污染源是有机性质的并且足够远,河流中就会发生比较好的自净,其结果是相同的水可再次用于带走废物。其次,对于污水处理来说,水不必与灌溉或者供水一样纯净。因此,不适用于其他目的的湖泊或河流碱性水或盐水,很可能被用于污染治理。7.2IrrigationRequirements7.2灌溉需求Thefirstquestionthatmaybeaskedonthissubjectwouldbe:Isthereanyneedforirrigation?Thisleadstoaninquiryoftheproductionofcropsundernaturalmoistureconditions.Itisnotunlikelythatinmanyyearsgoodcrophavebeengrown.However,duringdrycyclesseverecroplossesmayhavebeensuffered.Suchexperienceshouldbecarefullyrecordedsothatsubsequenteconomicanalysiscanbeapplied.Itisimportanttoknowhowfrequentandhowextensivecroploseshaveoccurred,andwhateffecttheyhadontheeconomyofthearea.Wouldconsiderablereliefbeattainedifsmallareawasirrigatedwherefoddercouldbegrowntokeepthelivestockintheareaaliveduringdroughtperiods?关于这个主题要问的第一个问题可能是:有必要灌溉吗?这就引出了对自然水分条件下作物产量的查询。作物在多年间生长良好的情况并非不可能。然而,在干旱周期内就可能遭受到严重的粮食减产。这样的经历应该被仔细地记录,以便应用到随后的经济分析中。知道作物减产发生的频率和范围,以及他们对该地区经济的影响很重要。假定灌溉一小块地区,在该地区可以在干旱期间种植草料以养活牲畜,那么干旱能否得到改善?Inquiriesshouldbemadewithrespecttofuturelandusechanges.Indenselypopulatedareas,asubstantialpercentageofagriculturallandmayberequiredforresidentialandindustrialdevelopment,thusdiminishingtheirrigableareas.Ontheotherhand,anincreaseinpopulationwillcallforincreasedfoodproduction,whichinturnwillcallforintensifiedirrigation.Sinceirrigationisatypeofwaterusethatmaybegivenincreasingpriorityinthefuture,itisimportanttoappraisealleconomic,socialandotherfactorsthatwilldeterminetherelativeprioritythatirrigationshouldhavewithrespecttootherwateruses.Itisquiteconceivablethateventuallytheuseofwaterforirrigationwillcomesecondonlytodomesticwateruse.我们应该进行有关未来土地利用变化的调研。在人口密集地区,可能有相当比例的农业用地作为住宅和工业发展需求,从而减少了灌溉面积。另一方面,人口增长会对食物产量提出更高的要求,而这反过来会要求加强灌溉。因为灌溉是一种在未来可能会获得更加优先级用水形式,因此评价所有会决定灌溉与其他用水相比的相对优先级的经济、社会和其他因素是非常重要的。可以预见的是,灌溉用水最终将仅次于生活用水。Afteraclearpicturehasbeenobtainedofpresentandfuturedemandsforagriculturalproducts,theproblemarisestodeterminetowhatextentirrigationcouldbeappliedtoincreasethepresentproduction.Thiscallsforaninquiryintothesoilandmoistureconditionsofthearea.Howmuchlandissuitabletobeirrigatedfromaviewpointoflocation,topography,fertilityanddrainage?Howmuchwatershouldbebroughttothelandtoensureagoodproductionofcrops?Thismayrangefrom1-8ftofwaterovertheirrigatedland,dependingontheclimaticconditionsandthetypeofcrop.在对现在和将来的农作物产品需求有了清晰的构画后,问题就出现在灌溉能能够在何种程度上增加目前的产量。这就需要对该地区的土壤和湿度条件的调研。从位置、地形、肥力和排水的角度来看,有多少土地适合灌溉?为了保证有良好的农作物产量,多少水需要被引到该地?灌溉地块用水可能在1-8英尺间变动,这决定于气候条件和作物类型。Itshouldbenotedthatirrigationrequirementsoftenconstituteamajorportionoftheavailablewatersupplies.Moreover,irrigationwatermustbeofevenhigherqualitythandomesticwatersinceplantsseemtobemoresensitivetomineralcontentinwaterthanarehumanbeings.Asaresult,theproblemsinsomeregionsmaybeoneofdetermininghowmuchlandcanbeirrigatedwiththeavailablewatersupplies,ratherthanhowmuchwaterisrequiredfortheirrigableland.应当指出的是,灌水量通常构成了可供水量的主要部分。而且,灌溉用水必须有比生活用水更好地水质,因为作物要比人类对水中的矿物质更敏感。其结果是,在一些地区的问题是确定多少土地能用可供水量灌溉,而不是灌溉土地需要多少水。Inmostreclamationdistricts,partofthewaterthatisusedforirrigatingthelandreturnsviaground-waterflowtothestreamchannels.Thisreturnflowmayrangefrom20-70percentoftheoriginalstreamflowdiversion.Whetherornotthereturnflowcanbeusedagainforirrigatingotherlanddependsonthemineralcontentofthesoilsofthereclamationdistrict.在大多数回收区,部分用于灌溉土地的水通过地下水流动到河流通道中。该回归水占初始引水流量的20-70%。该回归水是否还能用于灌溉其他土地取决于这些回收区的土壤矿物质含量。8.ReservoirControl8.水库控制Uncontrolleddetentionbasins,asdescribedintheabove,havebeenbuiltinthepast.However,sincethelastfewdecadesithasbeenfoundthattheavailablefundsandwaterresourcescanbeusedmoreefficientlywhenthereservoirsarecontrolled.Thiscontrolmayconsistofagateintheconduitandperhapsalsoagateonthespillwaycrest.Asaresult,wemaybeabletousethereservoirmoreeffectivelyfromaviewpointoffloodcontroland,moreover,wemaybeabletousethereservoiralsoforwatersupplypurposeswithoutharmingthefloodcontrolinterests.Inordertodevelopthesethoughtsinanorderlyfashion,letusfirstdiscussingeneraltheareasoffreedomthatwehaveindesigningandcontrollingareservoir,wemaydistinguishthefollowingvariables:1)Capacityofreservoir;2)Diameterandcontrolofconduit;3)Lengthandcontrolofspillway.如上面所描述的,在过去已经建立过不受控制的滞洪区。然而,近几十年来人们发现当建立水库控制时,现有的资金和水资源能够被更加有效地利用。这种控制可能由输水管道中的闸门构成,也可能是由溢洪道堰顶上的闸门实现。其结果是,我们可能能够从防洪的角度来更加有效地利用水库,并且,我们可能能够在不损害防洪利益的条件下以供水的目的利用水库。为了以一种有序的方式发展这些思想,让我们首先大致地讨论我们已有的设计和控制一座水库的参数范围,我们可以区分以下变量:1)水库库容;2)输水管道的直径和控制;3)溢洪道的长度和控制。Intheinitialstagesofourfloodcontrolstudy,themosteconomiccapacityofthereservoirisanunknownquantity.Infact,wedonotevenknowifareservoirofanysizewillbeeconomic!Letusthereforeassumethatwehavepreparedastoragecapacityversuselevationcurveforthedamsiteandthatwehavearbitrarilychosenoneorafewreservoircapacitiesforpreliminaryinvestigation.Weshouldqualifythislaststatementalittlemoreprecisely.Wecan,namely,selectarbitrarilyeitherafullsupplylevel,oraspillwaycrestlevel,oramaximumfloodlevel,ortheelevationofthetopofthedam.Letusassumeforthepresentdiscussionthatwehaveselectedthemaximumfloodlevel.Thislevelcorrespondstoacertaincapacityonthestorage-elevationcurve.Thisfigureisoftenquotedasthestoragecapacityofafloodcontrolreservoir.在我们防洪学习的初始阶段,最经济的水库库容还是一个未知数。事实上,我们甚至不知道任何规模的水库是否会是经济的!因此假设我们已经准备了一个坝址处的库容与水位关系曲线,并且我们已经任意地选择了一个或几个水库库容进行初步研究。我们应该更准确一点儿地描述这最后的说法。即,我们可以任意地选择足量供水水位,或者溢洪道堰顶水位,或最高洪水位,或者是坝址高程。我们为现在的讨论假设我们已经选择了最高洪水位水平。这个水位对应着库容-高程曲线上的某个库容。这个数字一般被称为水库防洪库容。Havingestablishedarbitrarily,andforthetimebeing,thecapacityofthereservoir,letusturntothenextvariable:thecontrolanddiameteroftheconduits.InFigure2(a)isrepeatedtheoutflowhydrographofthedetentionbasinofFigure1(b).我们已经任意地建立了目前的水库库容,让我们进入到下一个变量:输水管道的控制和直径。图2(a)中重复了图1(b)中滞洪区的出流水文图。Itmaybeseenthatalthoughthestoragecapacityissubstantial,thepeakflowreductionisverysignificant.Thesituationcouldbeimprovedifmorewaterwasdischargedfromthereservoirduringtheearlypartoftheflood,sothatmorestoragecapacitywouldbeavailableduringthepeakofthefloodwhenitisneeded.Letusassumeforamomentthatwehaveanextremelylargeconduit.Wecouldthensimplylettheriverrunthroughtheconduitduringtheearlypartofthefloodwithoutfillingupthereservoir,asshowninFigure2(b).WhentheriverhasreachedadischargeO2,westartclosingthegateoftheconduit.Thereservoirnowbeginstofill.Wekeepadjustingthegateontheconduit,sothatitsoutflowremainsconstantatO2.ThereservoirwillhavereacheditsmaximumstoragelevelwhentherecessioncurveofthefloodhydrographreachesamagnitudeofO2.Itwillbeappreciated,bycomparingFigures2(a)and2(b)thatwiththesameavailablestoragecapacitythesecondmethodofoperationresultsinmuchlowerreservoiroutflowsandthereforegreaterfloodcontrolbenefits.可以看出,尽管库容量很大,但是其削峰作用还是非常显著的。这种情况会在更多的水在洪水初期被排出时改善,所以在洪峰出现时如果需要就能够利用到更多的库容。让我们先假设我们有一个相当大的输水管道。如图2(b)所示,这样我们就能够让河水在洪水初期流过输水管而不会蓄满库容。当河流流量到了O2,我们就开始关闭输水管闸门。水库现在开始蓄水。我们不断地调节输水管闸门,保持其出流为恒定的O2。当洪水过程退水曲线到达O2的幅值时,水库将会达到其最大蓄水水平。通过比较图2(a)和2(b)可以看出,在有同样的可利用库容情况下第二种操作方法的结果是出流量大大减少,因此获得了更大的防洪效益。Nowthatwehavefixedthecapacityofthereservoirandthediameteroftheconduit,theonlyremainingvariableisthespillway.Weshallassumethatfromahydrologicstudyofthedrainagebasin,thespillwaydesignfloodhasbeendetermined.Inthehydraulicdesignofthespillwaythereareactuallytwoareasoffreedom:firstofallthelengthofthespillway;secondly,thespillwaycanbegatedorungated.Thedesignofanungatedspillwayofgivenlengthwouldtakeplacesomewhatasfollows.ThespillwaydesignfloodisroutedthroughthereservoirandthemaximumreservoirlevelisshownasstageinFigure3(a).Themaximumspillwayflowformsthebasisofthedesignofthestillingbasin.既然我们已经确定了水库库容和输水管直径,唯一剩下的就是溢洪道了。我们要假设通过对一个流域的水文研究,已经确定了溢洪道的设计洪水。溢洪道的水力设计中有两个参数范围:首先是溢洪道的长度;其次,溢洪道可以是闸控或是非闸控的。一个给出长度的非闸控溢洪道的设计是如下进行的。溢洪道的设计洪水通过水库并且最大水库水位已在图3(a)中展示。最大泄洪流量形成了消力池的设计基础。Maintainingthesamemaximumreservoirlevelatstage1,wecouldalsodesignaspillwayofsmallerlength.Inordertopassthesamespillwaydesignfloodwithoutexceedingstage1,itisobviouslynecessarytolowerthecrestofthespillway,asisshowninFigure3(b).要在第一阶段保持相同的最高库水位,我们还可以设计出长度更小的溢洪道。为了通过相同的溢洪道设计洪水而不超过第一阶段,明显必要地要如图3(b)中所示降低溢洪道堰顶。TheadvantageofthedesigninFigure3(b)overthedesigninFigure3(a)ismainlyitslowercost.Incasewearedealingwithanearthdam,thesavingofanarrowerspillwaymaybesubstantial.Whendealingwithaconcretegravitydamthesavingwouldberelativelysmallsinceweneedagravitysectioninanycase.Thedisadvantageisinitslessereffectivenessofpeakreductionofmediumandsmallfloods.SuchfloodsreachthespillwaycrestinFigure3(b)earlierthantheydoinFigure3(a),andthereforetheywillnotattainashighareservoirelevation.Alowerreservoirelevationmeanslessfloodwatergoneintostorage,whichinturnmeansalargeroutflow.图3(b)中的设计对于图3(a)中设计的优势主要是其成本更低。如果我们正在处理一座土坝,那么一个更窄的溢洪道的节省可能相当大。当处理一个混凝土重力坝时节省的相对较小,因为任何情况下我们都需要一个重力部分。其缺点是对中小型洪水削峰的效果较差。这样的洪水到达图3(b)溢洪道堰顶比图3(a)要早,因此它们不会达到相同的水库水位。一个低的水库水位意味着会蓄存更少的洪水,也反过来意味着更大的出流量。Thisdisadvantageofthelowerspillwaycrestcanbeeliminatedwhenthespillwayisequippedwithagate,asshowninFigure3(c).Thesmallandmediumfloodscannowbestoredmoreeffectivelyinthereservoir,andtheoutflowwouldbeatleastaslowasinFigure3(a).Infact,withagoodfloodforecastingsystem,theconduitgatesandspillwaygatescanbemanipulatedinsuchawaythatthesmallandmediumfloodsarestoreduptostage4inFigure3(c).AssumingthatthiselevationishigherthanthemaximumelevationthatthosesamefloodswouldhaveattainedinFigure3(a),thiswouldineffectmeanafurtherreductionoffloodpeaks.Sincefloodforecastingisnotalwaysreliable,thewidthofthespillwayinFigure3(c)shouldbegreaterthaninFigure3(b),sothatwhenthefloodturnsouttobegreaterthanexpectedthegatescanbeopened,andthereservoirlevelmaintainedbelowstage1.若如图3(c)所示,该溢洪道配备一个闸门,则低溢洪道堰顶的缺点就能够消除。现在中小型洪水能够更有效地蓄储在水库中,并且出流至少能够像图3(a)中的一样少。事实上,配合一个好的洪水预报系统,能够控制输水管闸门和溢洪道闸门以实现中小型洪水被如图3(c)一样蓄水到第四阶段。如果这个水位比那些相同的洪水能够在图3(a)中达到的最大水位要高,这就有效地意味着进一步的削减洪峰。由于洪水预报不总是可靠的,图3(c)中的溢洪道宽度应该比图3(a)中的大,这样当洪水比预想的要大时闸门就能打开,并且水库水位保持在第一阶段以下。Agatespillwaywouldyieldfurtheradvantages,whenthereservoirispartofafloodcontrolsystem,includingotherreservoirs.Manysituationsarepossiblewherebyitwouldbeadvantageoustocompletelystoptheoutflowfromcertainreservoirs,ifonlyforafewdays,inordertoreducethepeakflowsincriticalareasofthedrainagebasin.Assumingthatthereservoirhasalreadyrisenabovethespillwaycrest,suchamanipulationwouldonlybepossiblewhentheconduitsandthespillwayarebothequippedwithgates.当一个水库成为包含其他水库的防洪系统的一部分时,闸控溢洪道还将具有进一步的优点。为了对流域内的关键地区进行削减洪峰流量,如果有利在几天内要完全阻断某些水库出流,则很多情况都是有可能的。假设水库水位已经超过了溢洪道堰顶,这样的操作只能在输水管道和溢洪道都配备闸门时才是可行的。
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