[毕业设计精品] Cultural Differences in Everyday Conversation

[毕业设计精品] Cultural Differences in Everyday Conversation Cultural Differences in Everyday Conversation Acknowledgements The accomplishment of this thesis benefits from the enlightenment of my supervisor, He Qingmang, whose inspiring insights, generous encouragements, and enthusiastic instructions have facilitated me much throughout my thesis writing. Her penetrating and insightful comments afford me with inspiring source. She has been in constant concern about my thesis, spared no pains to entertain my thesis draft. I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to Foreign Language Department of LiShui University as well as all my teachers. Thanks to their instructive guidance and comprehensive education during the four years‘ schooling, I can acquire the opportunity to further study English. Finally, my great gratitude also goes to my classmates and my family members who have given me their help and time in listening to me and helping me work out my problems during the difficult course of the thesis. i Contents Acknowledgements..………………………………………………………………..i Contents…………………………………………………………………………….ii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………iii 摘要………………………………………………………………………………...iv Outline……………………………………………………………………………...v 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………..1 2. The Conversation Differences……………………………………………….....2 2.1 Cultural differences in Vocatives…………………………………………3 2.2 Cultural Differences in Greetings and Farewells………………………..6 2.2.1 Cultural Differences in Greetings…………………………………..6 2.2.2 Cultural Differences in Farewells…………………………………..7 2.3 Cultural Differences in Compliments and Responses…………………...8 2.4 Cultural Differences in Thanks and Replies……………………………..9 2.5 Cultural Differences in Apologies and Replies…………………………10 2.6 Cultural Differences in Invitations and Replies………………………..11 3. Causes of Cultural Differences……………………………………………......12 3.1 Differences in Value Concepts and Moral Criteria…………………….12 3.1.1 Personal Honor vs. Modesty……………………………………….13 3.1.2 Self-center vs. Sacrifice………………………………………….....13 3.1.3 Pioneering Spirit vs. Medium Way………………………………..14 3.1.4 Individual Freedom vs. Harmonious Cooperation…………….....15 3.2 Differences in Social Relation……………………………………………16 3.2.1 Equality Concept vs. Class Concept………………………………16 3.2.2 Nucleus Family vs. Four-Generation-under-the-Same-Roof…....17 4. The Way to Improve the Communication Activities………………………...18 5. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...20 Works Cited………………………………………………………………………22 ii Abstract stIn the 21 century, human being is living in an international environment where they are more and more closely related to each other and increasingly dependent on each other. As ―world citizens‖, there is no doubt that they are bound to carry out multi-directional exchanges. However, different cultural backgrounds have many differences in such aspects as language and behavior, which will inevitably cause many problems to the cross-cultural exchanges and cooperation. This thesis focuses on the day-to-day conversation between China and Western countries by comparing the differences in everyday conversations such as vocatives, farewells, thanks, apology, invitation plus compliment and analyzing the cultural factors that hide behind the differences, for the purpose of better guiding people‘s inter-cultural exchanges and eliminate some unnecessary misunderstandings. Key words: China; western countries; everyday conversation; cultural differences iii 摘要 21世纪人类生活在一个命运日益息息相关，彼此日益相互依赖的国际大环境中。作为“世界公民”,无疑要进行多方位的交流。然而，不同的文化背景存在语言、行为等诸方面差异,势必给跨文化交流与合作带来诸多问题。本论文重点论述中西方日常会话，比较日常会话中中西方在称呼、道别、致谢、致谦、邀请、表扬方面的差异，并对隐藏在其背后的文化因素进行分析，以期更好地指导人们的跨文化交流，消除一些不必要的误会。 关键词:中国;西方国家;日常会话;文化差异 iv Outline 1. Introduction 2. The Conversation Differences 2.1 Cultural differences in Vocatives 2.2 Cultural Differences in Greetings and Farewells 2.2.1 Cultural Differences in Greetings 2.2.2 Cultural Differences in Farewells 2.3 Cultural Differences in Compliments and Responses 2.4 Cultural Differences in Thanks and Replies 2.5 Cultural Differences in Apologies and Replies 2.6 Cultural Differences in Invitations and Replies 3. Causes of Cultural Differences 3.1 Differences in Value Concepts and Moral Criteria 3.1.1 Personal Honor vs. Modesty 3.1.2 Self-center vs. Sacrifice 3.1.3 Pioneering Spirit vs. Medium Way 3.1.4 Individual Freedom vs. Harmonious Cooperation 3.2 Differences in Social Relation 3.2.1 Equality Concept vs. Class Concept 3.2.2 Nucleus Family vs. Four-Generation-under-the-Same-Roof 4. The Way to Improve the Communication Activities 5. Conclusion v 1. Introduction thIn the 19 century, a British poet Kudyaro Kipling growing up in India, once wrote these words: Oh, East is east, West is West, And never twain shall meet. Kudyaro Kipling is a westerner, and he grew up in the East, so he had the deep feeling that it is difficult to overcome the culture between the East and the West. Although with the political and economic development, the exchange has been strengthened, many people are still confused during the contacts. Although language is the product of culture, it plays an active role in the formation and development of culture. Like a mirror, language reflects the whole culture of a nation. Like a window, a language reveals everything of its culture. Take the Chinese word ―天地 (Heaven and Earth)‖ for example. In Chinese, it means great power and authority. Previous dynasties emperor needs to ―祭天地 (sacrifice Zone)‖ and the bride and groom on their wedding celebration need to ―拜天地 (pay their respect to the Heaven and God)‖. When one curses , he will say ―苍天在上(Heaven can witness)‖. These words reflect the Chinese people‘s typical concept of Heaven. Most people in Europe and the United States are Christian. They believe that world is created by God and all the things in the world are also arranged according to God‘s wishes, so they always mention ―God‖ in their daily life. When the British and American people feel surprised, they will say ―God!‖ ―My God!‖ ―Oh! My God!‖ After the danger, English men and Americans will say ―Thank God!‖ When they are in the hope of success, they will say ―May God blesses me!‖ Any language is used to express the culture and hidden behind the culture. As we know, language also is an important part of culture and the exchange of language day to day plays a role as the lubricants. Understanding the differences of the languages and customs can help us to improve the cross-cultural communication activities. The thesis tries to deal with the problems from the form of addressing, the vi form of complimenting and form of taboo three-pronged approaches, focusing on the cultural differences in the day-to-day exchange of Chinese and Western language, exploring the causes of differences in cross-cultural communication so as to deepen the understanding of the phenomenon of differences, and effectively guide the cross-cultural communication activities. 2. The Conversation Differences Culture, as a specialized terminology, is flexible. In English, culture is a loan word from Latin in which it mainly means, ―cultivating or tilling the land‖. The word was originally associated with physical activities and production of food. The English anthropologist—Sir Edward Taylor in Primitive culture (1871) defines culture as ―that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a society‖. Afterwards, scholars enriched the concept of ―culture‖ by adding material to it and divided it into three parts in broad terms: (1) Material culture, which is manifested by various productions made by humankind. For instance, drinks, foods, building, dresses, tools, etc; (2) Spiritual culture, which is presented by the way and the result of men‘s thinking process, including beliefs, ideals, views, values, outlook on life, etc; (3) Social systems and customs, which means people‘s way of life and social regulations, involving laws, customs, educations, history, etc. However, this classification is not the terminal one. Other scholars, such as Eugene A. Nita, view ecology as a part of culture. So culture is like an umbrella, covering every aspect of our life, from environment to cultivated nature, from social productions to spiritual works. Communication is the process that people use language knowledge and social and cultural knowledge to convey the information. So learning the knowledge of the language and understanding the language reflecting the cultural background of knowledge is inseparable. Understanding the language and cultural background knowledge can make the communication smooth and effective. On the 2 contrary, lack of understanding of language and cultural background knowledge is bound to lead to communication barriers, conflict and misunderstanding, which called ―pragmatic failure‖. This chapter does not deal with the mistakes in grammatical structure, and the words that do not lead to conveying the ideas, but the wrong way to speak that does not comply with the customary expression, or is right out of date. That the speakers do not speak properly is caused by their not following the native speakers‘ social customs and habits. It tries to talk about the day-to-day communication in Chinese-peaking country and English-speaking countries, as well as the deep-seated cultural differences behind them, and help people to have a better understanding of different culture. 2.1. Cultural Differences in Vocatives Vocatives, used to address others, consist of names, standard appellatives, terms for occupations, epithets, etc. There are large number of vocatives in both English and Chinese. In a sense, vocatives also embody the differences between English and Chinese culture. In the following, an emphasis will be played on the names. It is well known that both English and Chinese have a surname as well as a given name. The surname is inherited, but one‘s parents or other older member in the family usually assigns the given name. There are more than 35000 surnames in native English-speaking countries, but the commonly used given names are only 1000 more or less. In contrast, we can say that in Chinese culture, there are more given names than surnames. In China, we have a saying ―百家姓 (Chinese have 100 surnames).‖ In fact, according to Wang Qiang and Huang Yongjun (2007), there are 6362 surnames founded in documents (including moralities and Mongolia and Han‘s changed surnames in translation during Ming and Qing dynasties). Among these surnames, there are 3730 single surnames, 2498 double surnames, 127 three-word surnames, 2 four-word surnames and 5 five-word surnames. However, any Chinese character or the combination of two Chinese characters can be used as the given names. So 3 Chinese people have wilder choices than the people do in English -speaking countries. Although there are no logical relationship between children and their names, people in other language countries can hardly understand the meaning reflected by the names. Giving the names to the babies is the parents‘ own business and they can give any names to their children as they like. But in another aspect, when parents give the names to their babies, their cultural environment, such as the concept of moral, aesthetic, political, philosophical, influences them. A person‘s name in fact is a language noun full of cultural connotation. In English-speaking countries, there are mainly four kinds of names that are very popular: the first one is religious names, such as Christian, Christopher, Eliot, John, Jonathan, Joseph, Angela, and Elizabeth. They are connected with Christian and imply that Christian is closely related to their life. The second one is the plants names, especially the flowers names. They are very popular in female‘s names. Flowers stand for beauty and loving beautiful thing is the human nature, so people, especially the female chose the names with flowers. The third one is the names of the weapons. In west countries, men chose this kind of names more than women did. It is because in ancient age, the people who speak English were mainly the soldiers. Therefore, weapons were very necessary to them. The last one is the names that have something to do with knowledge, right, reputation. For example, Abraham, Alexander, Benjamin is very popular. When they give names to the building or a ship, they will give the famous people‘s name in history to them, just like Washington State. They will also take the inventor‘s name to a new scientific invention. This fully reflects the Westerners‘ people-centered concept in their daily life. In addition, Western children often follow the names of the important person. The most famous names are ―John‖ and ―Jane‖. A lot of black people in America are called ―Lincoln‖; we can easily find that it is because it is the American the th 16president‘s name. When we communicate with native English-speaking countries‘ people, we can see many people named after influenced figures or after 4 their own ancestors to show respect to them or honor them. However, in the traditional Chinese culture it is the taboo to name one‘s children after famous historical figures or one‘s relatives one or two generations above. For instance, the names of the emperors were forbidden to mention in ancient China. It might be due to the reason that China was once a more stratified society, in which classes and ranks were clearly classified. In such a society, grassroots were obliged to obey their superiors and sons had to obedient to their fathers. We can hardly find personal name in English that are related to historical events. These names are, however, quite common among the Chinese people. According to a survey done recently, there are in Beijing alone more than six thousand persons bearing the name ―国庆‖. And there are 6466 person‘s name called ―十一‖ in China. Many people who are about 45 years old are called ―援朝‖ or even ―抗美‖. ―三运‖ also is a very popular name after the movement against three crimes that was in full swing in the early 1950s. According to another survey, ―红‖ is the most popular Chinese character entering personal names from June, 1966 to October, 1976. Apparently, ―红‖ is associated with the ―Great Cultural Revolution‖ in those ten years. We can hardly find personal names in English related to the environment where they live, just like the geography, time of their birth, the place of their birth, natural phenomenon, and wishes and so on. But it is very common in China. For example, a boy called ―梁东明‖ because ―梁‖ is his surname, and ―东明‖ means that when he was born, the Sun was rising from the east at that time. The name with the character of ―健‖、 ―寿‖、 ―松‖、 ―福‖ means that his parents want him to be healthy and happy, and ―虎‖、 ―龙‖、 ―雄‖、 ―伟‖、 ―刚‖、 ―强‖ implies that they wish him to be stronger. Many girls‘ names use ―凤‖、 ―花‖、 ―玉‖、 ―彩‖、 ―娟‖ to express their gentle and beautiful nature. When addressing strangers, the English and the Chinese resort to different methods. The English ways are simpler than that of the Chinese. In formal occasions, people can add ―Mr.‖ to the name to address a man and ―Mrs.‖ to a woman who has married already. ―Miss.‖ can be used as a form of address to a 5 woman who has not married yet. To the women whom we do not know whether they have married or not, we can address them with ―Ms.‖ But the Chinese may use ―同志‖、 ―师傅‖、 ―先生‖、 ―老爷爷‖、 ―伯父‖、 ―伯母‖、 ―阿姨‖、 ―大哥‖、 ―大嫂‖、 ―大姐‖、 ―大兄弟‖、 ―小朋友‖ and many other forms. Many names of occupation titles can serve as the form of address. For example, ―木匠‖、 ―老师‖、 ―会计‖、 ―经理‖、 ―教授‖、 ―医生‖、 ―部长‖、 ―局长‖、 ―主任‖、 ―排长‖、 ―班长‖ and many other can be used as vocatives. However, in English, most names of occupations cannot be used in this way. Only such names of occupation as doctors and nurses can be used as vocatives. For example, in China, we cannot address the English teacher ―Teacher Wang‖, because it is not the English way to address a teacher. Instead, we also feel confused when we see the students in native English-speaking countries call their teachers‘ names directly, because in Chinese, it is strictly oriented. It is an interesting phenomenon that people in China don‘t like other to address them with ―副(deputy)‖, like ―副经理‖、 ―副科长‖、 ―副工程师‖、 ―副 教授‖、 ―副局长‖, because it seems that they are inferior to others. In addition, in China, the names of the family members or relatives who are one or two generations above the addresser are taboos for them to mention. It is impolite to mention his presents or grandparents‘ names. However, it is very common to call the name directly in English-speaking countries. 2.2 Cultural Differences in Greetings and Farewells Greetings and farewells play an important part in the daily life. We all know that the basic social function of greetings and farewell is to adjust the interpersonal relationship. Very few people start and end conversations with straight facts. 2.2.1 Cultural Differences in Greetings As a person, it is inevitable to communicate with others, and the greetings play an important role in one‘s daily life. Greetings are very useful in communications, because to people in China, the consequence may be very serious if one fails to greet others when they meet. Chinese concept of privacy is relatively weak, and the Chinese people think 6 that individuals should be vested in the collective. Therefore, the Chinese people are often very willing to understand other people‘s affairs and the other side is also willing to tell frankly. However, westerners attach great importance to personal privacy, and they stress personal space. They do not want other people to mention their own affairs and are more reluctant to let others interfere with. In China, people always greet each other by saying ―吃了没‖, ―上哪啊‖， ―去忙啊‖ and so on, but these do not convey the factual meaning, so the people needn‘t take it seriously. It is just a greeting, not a question. So the answers can be like these, ―是啊‖, ―出去下‖, ―是啊‖ and so on. Some foreigners may feel confused when are greeted by ―Have you eaten yet?‖ They will think that you are asking them for dinner or jeering at him for lack of money. In that case, misunderstanding may occur. From this example, we can find that many Chinese greetings cannot be directly translated into English. In English, it is a taboo to ask about private topics in the conversations, like one‘s salary, marriage and age. When two strangers meet, they will greet each other by saying ―Good morning!‖ ―Good afternoon!‖ or ―Lovely day, isn‘t it?‖ or ―Hello!‖ The most common topic is the weather. Even the weather is not very nice, they will say ―Lovely day isn‘t it?‖, so the other people should follow his words, and say ―Yes!‖ It is like in Chinese, when people ask you ―去哪啊?‖, you needn‘t answer it in detail, you can just say ―随便走走!‖ And so on. That is enough. But to people who are familiar in China, things can be different. They will ask the private things. 2.2.2 Cultural Differences in Farewells When people part with each other, both English people and Chinese will say something. In western countries, they often say ―Good bye!‖ ―Bye-bye!‖ ―So long‖ or ―See you later/tomorrow/ next week!‖ Their equivalent translations in Chinese are ―再见,‖ ―再会,‖ ―一会儿见/明天见/下星期再见.‖ It seems that they are all the same, but in fact, ―Good bye‖ is the contracted form of ―God be with you‖ and therefore carries a religious connotation, while, ―再见‖ dose not has this 7 color. It is just a warm hope to see somebody again. (HuangYi，Ma Qiong，1999: 26). Though there is something same in the farewell, there are still many differences. When the guest asks for leave in China, the host will see him off at the door or the gateway and say something like ―请走好‖. And the gust replies with ―请留步‖. However, their literal equivalents in English ―Stay here, please‖ and ―Walk well, please‖ sound strange and absurd to English speakers. The Chinese students will feel it is very difficult to bid farewell with the foreign teachers. When the American students get their answers, they will just say ―Thank you! Bye-bye!‖ and leave away. But to Chinese students, they will say something that has nothing to do with their questions and stay longer. If bidding farewell with the patients, the Chinese will say ―多喝开水(drink more boiled water)‖, ―多穿衣服(put on more clothes)‖, or ―好好休息(have a good rest)‖. But westerners will never say that, because it would be considered to be impolite. They may just say ―take care‖ or ―I hope you‘ll recover soon.‖ 2.3. Cultural Differences in Compliments and Responses It is very common to express compliments in every country, but different countries have different culture. There is an example: When a school leader introduces a teacher from America, he will say, ―Ladies and gentlemen, I‘m glad to introduce to you a pretty girl, Miss Brown. She is a very good teacher from the USA„‖ The new teacher will feel embarrassed. In China, when introducing someone, the people like to give good words. But to Americans, when they are introduced to a person, they do not like to be valued. In such condition, he just needs to introduce the teacher‘s identity, the background of education and so on. In China, it is very unusual to praise his family members. But to English-speaking countries, it is very common. In addition, when it comes to the reflection of the compliment, there are also many differences between Chinese and westerners. When praised, the Chinese will say ―哪里! 哪里!‖ or ―做得还不够‖, while to an English speaker, he will accept the compliment in many different ways, if the compliment may express his pleasure directly. When one says to him ―The 8 party is wonderful, I enjoy it very munch!‖ He will reply with ―Thank you, I‘m glad you like it!‖ or he will also return the compliment: ―You are the life of the game!‖ ―Thank you! So do you!‖ There is a joke between a Chinese and an American. ―You look beautiful tonight!‖ ―Where! Where!‖ ―Everywhere!‖ In this case, the American praises a beautiful Chinese woman, the woman denies the compliment in order to keep modest, so she replies ―哪里!哪里!‖ Its English equivalent is ―Where! Where!‖ But the American doesn‘t understand it is a basic principle of politeness in China, so he feel puzzled and think that the Chinese woman is asking him where she is beautiful. The people in the English-speaking countries always express their connotation directly. We can find that a man say ―You are beautiful!‖ to a woman. However, in China, it is the taboo for a man to say that, especially to say ―You have a lovely wife!‖ to a man who is no longer young. 2.4. Cultural Differences in Thanks and Replies Both in Chinese and English there are many expressions to show one‘s thanks. For example, people in English-speaking countries may say ―Thank you!‖ ―Thanks a lot!‖ ―Thank you very much!‖ ―Many thanks!‖ Even if somebody cannot help them, they still say ―Thank you all the same!‖ And in Chinese, we have ―谢谢!‖ ―太感谢你了!‖ ―我真不知道该怎么感谢你!‖ And so on. But there are still many cultural differences between them. Unlike the Chinese people, English people always express their thanks to others. Even if the help is very minor, like picking up a book from the floor for them, or bringing something for them, they will also use these polite expressions. But in China most of the polite expressions are reserved for strangers and casual friends. There seems to be a rule governing the use of thanks in Chinese: the closer the relationship between the interlocutors is the fewer polite expressions are used. In America, when the son brings the newspapers to his dad, the father will say ―Thank you!‖ to his son. In China, in most persons‘ opinions, the son should do something for his parents and it is the father‘s right. 9 The Chinese people will use apologies form to express their thanks. For example, the Chinese people will say ―很抱歉，浪费了你那么多的时间!‖ To the people who have spent time helping them. If this utterance of gratitude is put into English literally, it will annoy the English speakers, who may even think that ―Well, if you really think that you‘re wasting my time, you‘d better stay out of my way.‖ Also there are many differences in how to reply the thanks. In English, it is very common to say ―Not at all!‖ ―You are welcome!‖ ―It‘s my pleasure!‖ ―Don‘t mention it!‖ or ―It‘s OK!‖ And in Chinese, people will use ―您太客气了!‖ ―这是 我应该做的!‖ ―很高兴能为你服务!‖ or ―不用谢!‖. The Chinese attitude is that the appreciation is understood and need not be expressed among close friends and family members. This is evidenced by the utterances as replies to thanks: ―朋友之 间,不用客气!‖, ―跟咱哥们还用谢!‖, ―说谢就见外了!‖ and ―一家人何需客套!‖. 2.5. Cultural Differences in Apologies and Replies English-speaking people apologize more often and on more occasions than the Chinese. People will say ―Sorry!‖ to people when they touch somebody in the crowd. There are many expressions for apologies. ―I‘m sorry!‖, ―Sorry!‖, ―I‘m so sorry!‖ and ―Excuse me!‖ are frequently used in daily conversations. They say ―Excuse me!‖ when they need to pass in front of others, to leave a party or the dinner table or when they want to excuse themselves from company. While talking with others, they say it when they need to answer the phone or a doorbell and even when they sneeze. They say it when they want to cause others‘ attention to start to talk with them. However, when something serious happens, that may be involved in legal procedures. The persons in question do not apologize to each other, for apologies may be used against those who have made them. While in China, the apology is often a humble way to show modesty, and people do not take it seriously. For example, when the owner invites some people for dinner, though his hospitality is obvious, he still likes to apologize to the guests 10 with ―招待不周 (poor reception)!‖ When the guest presents a gift to the host, he will say ―不是什么好东西，请笑纳 ( It is not so good, please accept it)!‖ It is quite different from that in the western countries. When it comes to the replies of the apology, there are also many differences from culture to culture. Chinese have more replies than English-speaking people. For example, in English-speaking countries, people will simply say ―It doesn‘t matter!‖ or ―It‘s OK.‖ While in China, people will use much expression to comfort or to warn the hearer. They may say ―没什么大不了的 (there is nothing serious)!‖or ―下次注意点 (be more careful next time).‖ And so on. Using the replies to comfort the hearer can not only restore the speaker‘s face but also can ease the relationships between the two sides. Many people will choose ―caution‖ as a response to an apology. As the elderly or the people respected by others, they hope the hearer to avoid such mistakes again. In day-to-day conversation, this situation is more common. Teachers often use this expression to the students. In their view, their experiences and social status make it easy accepted. 2.6. Cultural Differences in Invitations and Replies As a social person, taking part in the social activities in daily life is inevitable. When inviting somebody to do something, the English people will use ―please‖ to show politeness. The English term please is usually regarded as the equivalent to ―请‖ in Chinese. However, they are not used exactly in the same way. On the one hand, in some situations the English term would not be used. For example, when offering or urging another person to be the first in going through a door or getting in a car, the normal expression is ―After you!‖ At the meal table, the English-speaking host usually just says ―help yourself!‖ to urge the guests to ile a Chinese might say ―请‖ or ―敬请光start eating, or take more of the food. Wh 临‖ corresponding to ―request the honor of your presence‖. On the other hand, ―please‖ is used much more extensively and frequently in English than ―请‖ in Chinese. In China when people visit a friend and have dinner with his or her family, 11 the host or hostess often says ―饭菜不好,请大家随便吃一点!‖ before starting to eat, and ―招待不周,请多原谅!‖ When the dinner is over. It is perfectly natural and appropriate for the host to say these to Chinese guests. To the guests from English-speaking countries, we had better say ―These are the best dishes we can supply. Please feel at home and help yourselves.‖ because English-speaking people would like to know the truth and we normally treat guests with the best dishes we can provide. The hospitality of Chinese people at table may be considered impolite by the foreigners, because the westerners think that it is their own business to eat food, and the hosts should not pick up food for them. And to them, excessive diet is the most shameful things. Therefore, when the guests finish their dinner, the host need not encourage them to eat more. An American may complains, ―The host treats me as a pig!‖ because the host always picks up some food for him. In the aspect of accepting the invitation, if out of courtesy, the Chinese people generally do not accept the invitation directly in the face of the inviter. They may answer very vaguely and promise ―我尽量(I try to).‖ This kind of reply can make the westerner confused and they will wonder whether they will come or not. Under such circumstance, the reply of the British people and the Americans may be very simple. They will just say ―Thank you! I‘ll come.‖ or ―I‘d like to, but I‘m afraid that I can‘t, because I have to attend a lecture then.‖ 3. Causes of Cultural Differences Form what is discussed above, it can be seen that there are many differences existing in the daily communications. How can we make our communication more effective? We need to find the cultural factors behind these differences. The reasons of the cultural conflict phenomenon are various. Fundamentally, it is because the Chinese and western cultures have different historical background, which inevitably brings about many differences in people‘s thinking, behavior, and many other things. 3.1 Differences in Value Concept and Moral Criteria 12 Every culture has its own unique system of values. The system can help people distinguish beauty and ugliness, the good and the evil. This is the people‘s philosophy of life, morality and behavior standards. However, the existed specific culture cannot be divorced, saying this culture is good and another culture might be considered bad. In every country, the existence of their culture is reasonable. Therefore, we must understand not only the value standard, but also the cultural background behind them. As we know, China is a traditional country. Since ancient times, people have respected modest and prudent attitude. But to westerners, they have different value concepts and moral criteria. 3.1.1 Personal Honor vs. Modesty Westerners worship personal struggle. They are particularly proud of the achievements of individuals, never covering up their own self-confidence, and sense of honor and success of the ecstasy. So when somebody compliments them, they will accept it naturally. On the contrary, the Chinese people do not honor individuals but promote self–modesty. Chinese are against the proud proclaiming. But the westerners are often dissatisfied with the Chinese self-modesty or self-affirmation. ―Your English is very good!‖ ―No. No. My English is very poor!‖ ―You did a good job!‖ ―No, I don‘t think so. It‘s the result of joint efforts!‖ To English-speaking natives, the answers may let them feel unpleasant. They may think that the Chinese people want them to praise them more. This modesty, in the westerners‘ eyes, not only denies them, but also is negative with the appreciation capacity of the people who praises them. 3.1.2 Self–center vs. Sacrifice Westerners have a strong sense in both self-center and independence. In the west, the manner and extent of providing help, care, and sympathy for others must be in accordance with the acceptable side. They are not used to caring about others and helping others. They do not want to disturb others. Providing helps can be regarded as an interference with the private affairs of others‘ and accepting other 13 people‘s help may be considered as incompetence. A Chinese student in the United States saw an elder going to cross a busy the road. Out of compassion, he ran to him and wanted to help him, which caused a great dissatisfaction to the elder. These differences are also reflected in their conversations. The English-speaking people do not like to talk about private topics as is said before. But in China, people are always ready to help others to show their warmth. The Chinese code of conduct is ―Whether I‘m useful to others and to the society.‖ The value of the individual is reflected in the dedication. A respected noble Chinese culture value is selfless dedication. In China, it is a virtue to help other unselfishly. The Chinese people care everything around them, not only the trivial events but also the important things. So it is very common to help others at the table in China, which is difficult for the foreigners to accept it. China has a traditional habit of hospitality. They often invite other people to their home. The hospitality is not only reflected in their attitudes to the guests, but also in their actions. It is inevitable to prepare some fish and meat for their guest. Otherwise, they will feel embarrassed, or even shameful. Nevertheless, the owner will still say ―不知道这些菜合不合你口味, 请随便吃 ( I don‘t know whether you like it or not. Please help yourself.‖ ―招待不周(poor reception)‖. The foreigners will feel uncomfortable in that situation and they will doubt the owners‘ good willingness. In their view, since the owner invited them to dinner, they should have a good preparation for it. 3.1.3 Pioneering Spirit vs. Medium Way In communication with the people, Chinese people tend to show modesty, and see this as a virtue. It is a Chinese cultural heritage. We commend the people, and we show our modesty and politeness by using self-critics. Western countries have no such cultural practices. We may think that the Westerns are too self-confident, and without modesty. Westerners encourage people to explore the new field, and do some thing that their predecessors have never done. The American earliest settlers came to the North American continent 14 to establish colonies that were free from the controls that existed in European societies. They want to escape the controls placed on their lives by kings and governments, priests and churches, noblemen and aristocrats. To a great extent, they succeeded. (Ning Hong, 2004: 44). This pioneering spirit influences them a lot in their daily life. Unlike the Chinese, they speak directly in many ways. Take compliments for example, they will praise a person directly and accept the compliments naturally. The Chinese people advocate the doctrine of the mean. They seldom value others directly and show their connotations. So we can hardly find that they show their disagreement directly. Few people express their opinions and views in public places. They don‘t want to offend others and are willing to maintain the present situations. If they have to do so , they will use a polite way to make other people feel better, such as using ―如果‖ ―能不能‖ ―要是‖ to give his suggestions or advices. If they are asked for dinner, when the hosts ask them about which to eat, they will answer ―随便(everything is OK)‖. When the hosts cook some food that they don‘t like to eat, they will say nothing about it, because they think it is impolite to be contrary to the hosts‘ good-intention. In the day-to-day conversation, they seldom express their own politic and religious opinion. People always echo others. This is very common in schools. Whatever the teachers say, the students will take it as the truth. Even there is something wrong; the students will not point it out directly. 3.1.4 Individual Freedom vs. Harmonious Cooperation The westerners more and more come to be associated in their minds with the concept of individual freedom. This is probably the most basic of all the American values. In English, ―I‖ is always capitalized. American firmly believes that ―Every man is the architect of his own fortune.‖ A large number of English vocabularies prove individualism, like ―self-center‖, ―self-respect‖, ―self-confidence‖, ―self-reliance‖, ―self-dependence‖ and so on. De Tocqueville observed the Americans‘ belief in self-reliance nearly 200 years ago in the 1830s: 15 They own nothing to any man, they expect nothing from any man; they acquire the habit of always considering themselves as standing alone, and they are apt to imagine that their whole destiny is in their own hands. (qtd. in Ning Hong, 2004: 45). So the westerners think that they deserve all the compliments because they just get what they should get. They feel what they have obtained is all through their own labor. The westerners cherish personality and don‘t want to be restricted. In the day-to-day interaction, they also do not like others to interfere with their affairs and like to keep certain distance from others. Chinese people lay too much emphasis on collectivism and consider that collective interests subordinate their personal interests and personal interests must be consistent with the national and collective interests. No matter what they have achieved, they will attribute is to the other people‘s help. 3.2 Differences in Social Relation Because of two different social patterns, there must be some differences in their culture. 3.2.1 Equality Concept vs. Class Concept People in English-speaking countries believe that ―everyone is equal before God‖. In modern British and American society, the concept of equality for all has been accumulated in the people‘s cultural psychology. Every person hopes to communicate with other freely and equally. They do not expect others to treat them too politely or too bindingly. They pay great attention to their image and are often worried being seen difficult to get close to. So the Americans not only do not use the position to address each other, but also do not like to use such title as ―Mr.‖, ―Miss.‖ or ―lady‖ to address others, because they think that these seem too solemn and are not easy to create friendliness. Having this mentality, regardless of the status and age, they call each other with names as far as possible to show friendliness, even between parents and their children. Westerners have such strong sense of equality. Whether rich or not, everyone will respect themselves and not allow others to violate their rights. At the 16 same time, everyone can fully respect others. In the United States, very few people are proud of their illustrious family background or ashamed of their poor birth. They all know that, through their own efforts, they are bound to be a success. This equality also exists in the family. The parents treat their children as their friends. They can express their opinions equally. The parents give them enough freedom to decide their own affairs, such as choosing school, job and so on. In china, we have a long history of 5,000 years and the feudal society has ruled for a quite long period. China has a strong tradition of moral hierarchy, which still affects the Chinese people in many ways. Since ancient time, China has very strict grading system. For example, the elder in China is very respectable. It is a Chinese tradition to respect them. For several thousand years, people have regarded to respect the elder as a social responsibility and behavior standards. Mencius in the time of the Warring State once said ―老吾老以及人之老,‖ which means we should respect the other elderly people as we respect our elder. If we don‘t do so, we may be condemned by public, or even be punished by law. In china, in the children‘s eyes, their parents have absolute authority, and it is the same in student‘s opinion. They shouldn‘t challenge the teachers‘ authority in class. When they are in front of their teachers, the Chinese students are not self-confident, mainly because they do not feel that they are equal, in the face of knowledge and personality. If a student doubt about the teacher‘s ability, he is ―disobedient‖, and cannot get good scores. In China, being obedient or not may decides the student‘s scores. Because the teacher has great power, to measure whether he is a good student or not, so the students in front of teachers are not so confident. It is very different in western countries, where the students are very active in the class, because the teachers treat them equally and they were encouraged to raise some different views. 3.2.2 Nucleus Family vs. Four-Generation-under-the-Same–Roof Living environment also affects the thinking of the people. Siheyuan (四合院) is one of the most represent houses of China. It has a long history. As early as in the Western Zhou Dynasty, there were houses of 17 Siheyuan. It is known for its complete structure. The room of Siheyuan is hierarchical. There are rooms for people of older generation, as well as for people of younger generation. Chinese like the life of extended family. Chinese people attach great importance to family; this can be reflected in the titles. For example, if the two persons born in same generation, but has no blood relationship, the older one will address the younger one ―弟弟 (younger brother)‖ or ―妹妹 ( younger sister)‖ and the younger one will address the older one ―哥哥 (older brother)‖ or ―姐姐(older sister)‖. In that case, the people will treat others as their family members, and their words and deeds are greatly limited. For example, people must behavior politely before the older. They should not call the elders‘ names directly. It is interesting that even between husband and wife; people will still use this term to refer to each other. In the village of Northern China, husband calls his wife ―孩子他妈(children‘s mother)‖. Conversely, wife calls her husband ―孩子他爸 (children‘s father)‖. Chinese has a complex family background, and to them, the traditional happiness is four generation under the same roof. The elder help to care for the children. After the children grow up, their grandchildren help the elder in turn. The family helps each other and forms a close relationship. American family structure is relatively simple. The parents and their little children form a nuclear family. Once the children are married, they must go out to live and their economy must also be independent. This kind of family structure alienates the relationship between the relatives. Under this situation, the American forms the character of independence. Many Chinese in the contacts with them will feel that they are on their own interests, which makes the Chinese peoples feel very uncomfortable. 4. The Way to Improve the Communication Activities Various cultural differences in Chinese and Western cultures will inevitably have a negative impact on cross-cultural communications. It may causes communication failures and the communication conflict, if we do not mind the 18 American customary hug and their praise for the women and their informal section. In a short, it is necessary to eliminate some doubt, anger, and other negative emotions that are caused by the unconscious language and activities. The first important thing is to strengthen the communication. With more communication, more misunderstandings are eliminated and more conflicts disappear. Although culture comes from the different nations, because of its continued development and evolution, each culture has absorbed and integrated a lot. The reform and opening up of China is also accepting some beneficial cultural nutrition from the foreign countries. The 80‘s or 90‘s people who influenced by the Western culture are no longer like the ―stereotyped‖ Chinese people who repeatedly force the guests to accept the things that they do not like. Chinese cuisine are popular in the United States is one such an example. In the eyes of foreigners, not all Chinese people are conservative. The fixed labels that a Chinese woman must has ―三寸金莲(very small feet)‖ has been broken by the reality of society. In the study of cultural differences on the impact of cross-cultural communication, we will also note that some differences do not constitute obstacles to communication at the same time. With the passage of time, some differences in some places is becoming disappeared or becoming insignificant with the increase of exchange between China and Western countries. Every culture mutually integrates and penetrates with each other, so that the cultural differences gradually disappear. The second is ―Do as the Romans Do.‖ There is no denying that we should do as the Romans do when in Rome. This is an accumulated experience we inherit from our ancestors, and know it is still widely applied to our daily life. The old saying tells us vividly that wherever we are, we should do everything according to local customs. The proverb has profound impact on our interactions with people from other culture. There is an example for it: two Chinese people went to the U.S. to travel. One day they got lost and it seemed that they would never find their way back to their hotel. Suddenly an elderly woman came near them. Excited and 19 trying to be polite, one of them approached her and asked, ―Excuse me, how old are you?‖ This polite opening remark in Chinese culture made the woman stare at him in surprise, because age is a taboo in western cultures. Seeing the embarrassment, the other Chinese said, ―Beautiful day isn‘t it?‖ Of course, the woman said ―Yes‖ and happily told them the way to their hotel. A lesson that can be drawn from the above example is obvious. Whether we know the local customs will play a crucial role in our relationship with others. More importantly, doing everything, as the local do will help us make more friends and avoid troubles. Therefore, in our daily communications, we should respect other people‘s culture and strive to learn from others‘ advanced knowledge and culture. In learning English, understanding the cultural background of the knowledge and social customs is very necessary. 5. Conclusion In the day-to-day exchanges, as a result of cultural barriers, information misunderstanding and even hurting each other‘s is common occurrences. Sometimes a good-will conversation can become an embarrassment to the others. There are many cultural differences in everyday conversation, such as in vocatives, farewells, invitation, compliments and so on. One reason of such differences is that both Chinese and English-speaking people have different value concepts and moral criteria. The westerners advocate personal honor, emphasize self-center, insist on pioneering spirit, and run after individual freedom, while the Chinese prefer modesty, sparkplug sacrifice, propose medium way, call for harmonious cooperation. Another reason is that the social relation of Chinese people and the westerners is different. In the westerners‘ view, the relationship between a person and another person is equal. Furthermore, they are in favor of the nucleus family, and the relationship between family members is like that between others. However, in China, the relationship between persons is hierarchical and the relationship between family members is very close, different from that between other people. Through analysis and comparison, the thesis 20 makes people clear about the cultural differences in everyday conversation between China and Western countries, which can enhance the understanding between these countries. In the base of recognition of cultural differences, people can strengthen the integration by the subject of tolerance, acceptance and communication. It can enable people to better understand themselves and understand what other people think of themselves. Understanding clearly about the cultural differences in everyday conversation is very helpful for communication. In inter-cultural communication, in order to make communication go smoothly, what the speakers should do is to make clear about the cultural background behind the language, strengthen the communication, and do as the Romans do in Rome. In this way can the cultural conflict disappear? And with the development of communication, some new problems will appear which needs to be further studied. As long as people hold the attitude of looking for the differences and deal with the differences, international exchange will surely improve. 21 Works Cited [1] Hymes, D. H. On Communicative Competence [M]. Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1971. [2] Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. porter, Lisa A. Stefani. Communications Between Cultures [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. [3] Taylor, E. B. Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom [M]. New York: Gordon Press, 1871. [4] 陈治刚等. 英美概况. [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1994. [5] 邓炎昌, 刘润清. 语言与文化 [M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1991: 169-176. [6] 黄奕, 马琼. 美国文化探奇: 风俗背后的故事 [M]. 西安: 西安交通大学 出版社, 1999. [7] 胡胜高. 中西思维方式差异对语言的影响 [J]. 重庆工学院学报, 2005 (02); 137-140. [8] 胡文仲. 跨越文化的屏障 [M]. 北京: 北京教育研究出版社, 2004. [9] 贾玉新. 跨文化交际学 [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1997. [10] 峻岭. 英美社会文化概论 [M[. 合肥: 安徽大学出版社, 2005. [11] 李庆明. 英汉语言文化比较 [M]. 西安: 西北工业大学出版社, 2007. [12] 李昕辉. 中西方价值观差异的形成及其在语言中的体现 [J]. 青岛远洋船 员学院学报, 2004 (04): 58-60, 64. , 胡壮麟. 语言文化差异的认识和超越 [M]. 北京: 北京大学出版[13] 李战子 社, 2005. [14] 宁洪. American Value and its Culture Reading Course [M]. 天津: 天津大 学出版社, 2004. [15] 谭颖. 英汉称谓语与文化之关联 [J]. 武汉理工大学学报 (社会科学版), 2002 (02): 197-201. [16] 王强, 黄永军. 万事由来全集 [M]. 北京: 团结出版社, 2007. [17] 王泽民, 朱平平. 英语国家概况 [M]. 北京: 北京光明日报出版社, 2001. 22 [18] 杨德峰. 汉语与文化交际 [M]. 北京: 北京大学出版社, 1999. [19] 于桂敏,王艳秋. 影响跨文化交际的主要因素——中西方价值观念差异 [J]. 大连教育学院学报, 2004 (03): 76-79. [20] 赵春娥. 从日常用语看中西文化的差异 [J]. 山西农业大学学报, 2006, 5 (1): 42-44. 附录:外文翻译 In Wang Zuoliang‘s translation practices, he translated many poems, especially the poems written by Robert Burns. His translation of Burn‘s ―A Red, Red Rose‖ brought him fame as a verse translator. At the same time, he published about ten papers on the translation of poems. Some argue that poems cannot be translated. Frost stresses that poetry might get lost in translation. According to Wang, verse translation is possible and necessary, for ―The poet-translator brings over some exciting work from another culture and in doing so is also writing his own best work, thereby adding something to his culture. In this transmission and exchange, a richer, more colorful world emerges. ‖(Wang, 1991:112). Then how can we translate poems? According to Wang‘s understanding, the translation of poems is related to three aspects: A poem‘s meaning, poetic art and language. (1)A poem‘s meaning ―Socio-cultural differences are formidable enough, but the matter is made much more complex when one realizes that meaning does not consist in the meaning of words only, but also in syntactical structures, speech rhythms, levels of style.‖ (Wang, 1991:93). (2)Poetic art According to Wang, ―Bly‘s point about the ?marvelous translation‘ being made possible in the United States only after Whitman, Pound and Williams Carlos Williams composed poetry in speech rhythms shows what may be gained when there is a genuine revolution in poetic art.‖ (Wang, 1991:93). (3)Language ―Sometimes language stays static and sometimes language stays active. When language is active, it is beneficial to translation‖ ―This would require this kind of intimate understanding, on the part of the translator, of its genius, its idiosyncrasies, its past and present, what it can do and what it choose not to do.‖ (Wang, 1991:94). Wang expresses the difficulties of verse translation. Frost‘s comment is sufficient to prove the difficulty a translator has to grapple with. Maybe among literary translations, the translation of poems is the most difficult thing. Poems are the crystallization of wisdom. The difficulties of poetic comprehension lie not only in lines, but also in structure, such as cadence, rhyme, metre, rhythm, all these conveying information. One point merits our attention. Wang not only talks about the times‘ poetic art, but also the impact language‘s activity has produced on translation. In times when the language is active, translation is prospering. The reform of poetic art has 23 improved the translation quality of poems. For example, around May Fourth Movement, Baihua replaced classical style of writing, so the translation achieved earth-shaking success. The relation between the state of language and translation is so 24