国际经济法英文复习

1.Thesourcesofinternationaleconomiclaw1)Internationaleconomictreaties2)InternationalBusinessPractices3)ThenormativeresolutionsoftheUNGeneralAssembly4)Nationallegislation2.ConclusionofaninternationalcontractforsaleofgoodsInternationalSaleofGoodsistheagreementsbetweentheparties.Itisconcludedbyoneparty’sofferandtheotherparty’sacceptance.Moreoftenacontractcouldn’treachaftertheoffer,thepartyoftenmakescounter-offer,afterrepeatedconsultations,thetwosidesreachedconsensusandthecontractcouldbesustained.Intheconsultationprocess,theofferandacceptancearetwoimportantlegalsteps."UnitedNationsConventiononContractsforInternationalSaleofGoods"1980carriedoutinarticles14-24ofthisprovision.1.OfferAnoffer(要约)isaproposalbyonepersontoanotherindicatinganintentiontoenterintoacontractunderspecifiedterms.InthewordsoftheRestatementSecondofContracts24,anoffermustbea"manifestationofwillingnesstoenterin-toabargain,somadeastojustifyanotherpersoninunderstandingthathisassenttothatbargainisinvitedandwillconcludeit".Thus,thefirstelementofanofferisamanifestationofanintentiontobepresentlyboundsubjectonlytoanappropriateacceptance.1)Conditionsconstituteanoffer.Aproposalforconcludingacontractaddressedtooneormorespecificpersonsconstitutesanofferifitissufficientlydefiniteandindicatestheintentionoftheofferortobeboundincaseofacceptance.Aproposalissufficientlydefiniteifitindicatesthegoodsandexpresslyorimplicitlyfixesormakesprovisionfordeterminingthequantityandtheprice.Anofferbecomeseffectivewhenitreachestheofferee.Aproposalotherthanoneaddressedtooneormorespecificpersonsistobeconsideredmerelyasaninvitationtomakeoffers,unlessthecontraryisclearlyindicatedbythepersonmakingtheproposal.2)Withdrawandrevoketheoffer.Anoffer,evenifitisirrevocable,maybewithdrawnifthewithdrawalreachestheoffereebeforeoratthesametimeastheoffer.Untilacontractisconcludedanoffermayberevokediftherevocationreachestheoffereebeforehehasdispatchedanacceptance.However,anoffercannotberevoked:(a)ifitindicates,whetherbystatingafixedtimeforacceptanceorotherwise,thatitisirrevocable;or(b)ifitwasreasonablefortheoffereetorelyontheofferasbeingirrevocableandtheoffereehasactedinrelianceontheoffer.3)Lapseofoffer.Afterthelapseoftheoffer,boththeofferorandtheoffereearenolongerboundbytheoffer.Lapseduemainlytothefollowingsituations(i)theofferhasexpiredduetotimepassing,thatis,theoffereedidn’tacceptinthespecifiedperiod.(ii)Therevocationoftheofferbytheofferor.(iii)Theofferor'srefusaltoofferduetolapse.Arefusalbytheofferormaybeexpressoritcanbeimplied,aimpliedrejectionismanifestedismanifestedmainlychangesinthecontentsoftheoriginaloffer.Changesfortheofferarecalledcounter-offer.2.AcceptanceAcontractisn'tformeduntiltheofferisacceptedbytheofferee.Theacceptance(接受)istheofferee'smanifestationoftheintentiontobeboundtothetermsoftheoffer.Inalllegalsystems,theoffereemayacceptatanytimeuntiltheofferisrevokedbytheofferor,untiltheofferexpiresduetothepassageoftime,untilitisrejectedbytheofferee,untiltheoffereemakesacounteroffer,oruntilterminationinsomeothermanner.UndertheCISG,anacceptancemaytaketheformofastatementoranyotherconductbytheoffereethatindicatestheofferee'sintentiontobeboundtothecontract.1)RequirementsofAcceptance(i)Anacceptancemustbemadebytheofferee.Astatementmadebyorotherconductoftheoffereeindicatingassenttoanofferisanacceptance.Silenceorinactivitydoesnotinitselfamounttoacceptance.However,if,byvirtueoftheofferorasaresultofpracticeswhichthepartieshaveestablishedbetweenthemselvesorofusage,theoffereemayindicateassentbyperforminganact,suchasonerelatingtothedispatchofthegoodsorpaymentoftheprice,withoutnoticetotheofferor,theacceptanceiseffectiveatthemomenttheactisperformed,providedthattheactisperformedwithintheperiodoftimelaiddownintheprecedingparagraph.(ii)Anacceptancemustbemadewithintheperiodofvalidity.(Lateacceptanceisacounterofferonly)Alateacceptanceisneverthelesseffectiveasanacceptanceifwithoutdelaytheofferororallysoinformstheoffereeordispatchesanoticetothateffect.Ifaletterorotherwritingcontainingalateacceptanceshowsthatithasbeensentinsuchcircumstancesthatifitstransmissionhadbeennormalitwouldhavereachedtheofferorinduetime,thelateacceptanceiseffectiveasanacceptanceunless,withoutdelay,theofferororallyinformstheoffereethatheconsidershisofferashavinglapsedordispatchesanoticetothateffect.(iii)Anacceptancemustmatchthetermsoftheofferexactlyandunequivocally.Otherwiseitisconsideredacounterofferandthusarejectionoftheoriginaloffer.Areplytoanofferwhichpurportstobeanacceptancebutcontainsadditions,limitationsorothermodificationsisarejectionoftheofferandconstitutesacounter-offer.However,areplytoanofferwhichpurportstobeanacceptancebutcontainsadditionalordifferenttermswhichdonotmateriallyalterthetermsoftheofferconstitutesanacceptance,unlesstheofferor,withoutunduedelay,objectsorallytothediscrepancyordispatchesanoticetothateffect.Ifhedoesnotsoobject,thetermsofthecontractarethetermsoftheofferwiththemodificationscontainedintheacceptance.Additionalordifferenttermsrelating,amongotherthings,totheprice,payment,qualityandquantityofthegoods,placeandtimeofdelivery,extentofoneparty'sliabilitytotheotherorthesettlementofdisputesareconsideredtoalterthetermsoftheoffermaterially.2)TimeofAcceptance.Anacceptanceofanofferbecomeseffectiveatthemomenttheindicationofassentreachestheofferor.Anacceptanceisnoteffectiveiftheindicationofassentdoesnotreachtheofferorwithinthetimehehasfixedor,ifnotimeisfixed,withinareasonabletime,dueaccountbeingtakenofthecircumstancesofthetransaction,includingtherapidityofthemeansofcommunicationemployedbytheofferor.Anoraloffermustbeacceptedimmediatelyunlessthecircumstancesindicateotherwise.3)Withdrawtheacceptance.Anacceptancemaybewithdrawnifthewithdrawalreachestheofferorbeforeoratthesametimeastheacceptancewouldhavebecomeeffective.3.CISGArticle57(1)Ifthebuyerisnotboundtopaythepriceatanyotherparticularplace,hemustpayittotheseller:(a)attheseller'splaceofbusiness;or(b)ifthepaymentistobemadeagainstthehandingoverofthegoodsorofdocuments,attheplacewherethehandingovertakesplace.(2)Thesellermustbearanyincreasesintheexpensesincidentaltopaymentwhichiscausedbyachangeinhisplaceofbusinesssubsequenttotheconclusionofthecontract.Article58(1)Ifthebuyerisnotboundtopaythepriceatanyotherspecifictime,hemustpayitwhenthesellerplaceseitherthegoodsordocumentscontrollingtheirdispositionatthebuyer'sdisposalinaccordancewiththecontractandthisConvention.Thesellermaymakesuchpaymentaconditionforhandingoverthegoodsordocuments.(2)Ifthecontractinvolvescarriageofthegoods,thesellermaydispatchthegoodsontermswherebythegoods,ordocumentscontrollingtheirdisposition,willnotbehandedovertothebuyerexceptagainstpaymentoftheprice.(3)Thebuyerisnotboundtopaythepriceuntilhehashadanopportunitytoexaminethegoods,unlesstheproceduresfordeliveryorpaymentagreeduponbythepartiesareinconsistentwithhishavingsuchanopportunity.Timeofpassingofrisk.Ifthecontractofsaleinvolvescarriageofthegoodsandthesellerisnotboundtohandthemoverataparticularplace,theriskpassestothebuyerwhenthegoodsarehandedovertothefirstcarrierfortransmissiontothebuyerinaccordancewiththecontractofsale.Ifthesellerisboundtohandthegoodsovertoacarrierataparticularplace,theriskdoesnotpasstothebuyeruntilthegoodsarehandedovertothecarrieratthatplace.Thefactthatthesellerisauthorizedtoretaindocumentscontrollingthedispositionofthegoodsdoesnotaffectthepassageoftherisk.Nevertheless,theriskdoesnotpasstothebuyeruntilthegoodsareclearlyidentifiedtothecontract,whetherbymarkingsonthegoods,byshippingdocuments,bynoticegiventothebuyerorotherwise.Theriskinrespectofgoodssoldintransitpassestothebuyerfromthetimeoftheconclusionofthecontract.However,ifthecircumstancessoindicate,theriskisassumedbythebuyerfromthetimethegoodswerehandedovertothecarrierwhoissuedthedocumentsembodyingthecontractofcarriage.Nevertheless,ifatthetimeoftheconclusionofthecontractofsalethesellerkneworoughttohaveknownthatthegoodshadbeenlostordamagedanddidnotdisclosethistothebuyer,thelossordamageisattheriskoftheseller.4.CarriageofGoodsbySeaAbillofladingisaninstrumentissuedbyanoceancarriertoashipperwithwhomthecarrierhasenteredintoacontractforthecarriageofgoods,whichstatesthatcertaingoodshavebeenshippedonaparticularshiporhavebeenreceivedforshipment.Thebillofladinghasthreecharacteristics:(a)itisareceiptissuedbyoronbehalfofthecarrierwherebyheacknowledgesthathehasshippedthegoodsorreceivedthemforshipment;(b)itevidencesthetermsofthecontractofcarriagewhichisnormallyconcludedearlier;(c)itisadocumentoftitle.LossesLossesfallintotwomainclasses:totallossandpartialloss.(1)Totalloss.Thislosscaneitherbeactualtotalloss(实际全损失)wherevesselorcargoaretotallyandirretrievablylost,orconstructivetotalloss(推定全损)inacasewheretheshiporthegoodshavebeenabandonedbecausethecostofsalvageorrecoverywouldhavebeenoutofproportiontothevalue.(2)Partialloss.Thismeansthelosstothegoodsisonlypartial.Incaseofpartiallossafinedistinctionisdrawnbetweenparticularaverageandgeneralaverage.Inmarineinsuranceaveragehasanentirelydifferentmeaningfromitsnormalusageanditmeanslossordamagetothegoodsinthecourseofseatransportationduetonaturalcalamitiesandaccidentsandextraneousrisks.(a)Particularaverage(单独海损)isapartiallosstotheinsuredcargoandthelossmustbebornebytheownerofthisindividualconsignment.(b)Generalaverage(共同海损)isalossthatresultswhenextraordinaryexpensesorlossesareincurredinsavingthevesseloritscargofromdangeratsea.Thisancientprincipleofmaritimelaw,whichwasdevelopedlongbeforeinsurancewasavailable,spreadstheriskofadisasteratseabymakingallpartiestothevoyagecontributetoanylossincurred.Underthisrole,ifA'scargoisdamagedor"sacrificed"intheprocessofsavingtheship,andB'scargoissavedasaresult,BoritsinsurermustcontributetoAfortheloss.A’sclaimisageneralaverage.Inotherwords,theownerofthecargothatwassacrificedwouldhaveageneralaverageclaimforcontributionagainsttheownerofthecargothatwassaved.Forex-ample,whenfirethreatensanentireship,andcertaincargoisdamagedbywaterinputtingthefireout,theownersofallofthecargomustcontributetothelossofthecargothatwasdamagedbythewater.Theownersofcargothatisthrownover-boardtosaveasinkingshipmayhaveaclaimagainstthosewhosecargowasthere-bysaved.Generalaverageclaimsaretypicallycoveredbymarineinsurance.InsuranceCoverAccordingtothestipulationsofthePeople’sInsuranceCompanyofChina,thefollowingbasicinsurancecoversareavailableinmarineinsurance:1.FreeFromParticularAverageInsurance(FPA)(平安险)Underfreefromparticularaverageinsurancetheinsurancecompanywillberesponsibletopayclaimsfortotalorconstructivetotallossessufferedbythewholelotofcargoesduringtransportationduetosuchnaturalcalamitiesasvileweather,thunderandlightning,tidalwave,earthquakes,andfloods,orfortotalorpartiallossesduetotheshiporcarrierbeingonfire,stranded,sinking,collidingormeetingotherfortuitousaccidents.2.WithParticularAverageInsurance(WPA)(水渍险)Thecoverofthisinsuranceismoreextensive.Theinsurerisliable,inadditiontothetotalorconstructivetotallossescoveredbyFPAinsurancealsoforthepartiallossesoftheinsuredgoodsduetotheriskscausedbynaturalcalamitiesmentionedunderFPAinsurance.3.AllRisksInsurance(一切险)Amongthethreekindsofbasicinsurance,underan"allrisks"policythegoodsareinsuredagainstallrisks,.fromnaturalcalamities,fortuitousaccidentsatsea;orgeneralextraneousrisks,irrespectiveofpercentageofloss,totalorpartial.Anaturaldeteriorationofperishablegoods,delay,lossordamagecausedbyinherentviceornatureofthesubjectmatterisnotcovered.5.InternationalprotectionofintellectualpropertyIntellectualpropertyrightsareprotectedandregulatedinternationallybothbybilateraltreatiesandmultilateralconventions.Bilateraltreatiesweretheoriginalmeansofpreventingillegalcopying,andtheywereoncequitecommonplace.Withthegrowingpopularityofmultilateralconventionsinthemid-nineteenthcentury,theirusehasdiminished（减少）.Today,mostbilateralintellectualpropertytreatiesareusedbystatesthatarenotpartiestothemultilateralconventions.Internationaltaxevasion（国际逃税）isanillegalact,whileinternationaltaxavoidance（国际避税）isanimmoralact.