英语教学法（王蔷）重点梳理

PAGEACourseinEnglishLanguageTeachingUnit1LanguageandLearning1.1Howdowelearnlanguage？WelearnlanguageatdifferentagesPeoplehavedifferentexperiencesPeoplelearnlanguagesfordifferentreasonsPeoplelearnlanguagesindifferentwaysPeoplehavedifferentcapabilitiesinlanguagelearningLearningcanbeaffectedbythewayhowlanguageistaughtLearningisaffectedbythedegreeofsuccessoneisexpecttoachieve.Thusthechallengeconfrontinglanguageteachingishowteachingmethodologycanensuresuccessfullearningbyallthelearnerswhohavemoredifferencesthanthecommonality.1.2Whatarethemajorviewsoflanguage?1)Structuralview:Languageisalinguisticsystemmadeupofvarioussubsystems:phonology,morphology,lexicologyandsyntacx.Tolearnalanguageistolearnitsvocabularyandstructuralrules.2)Functionalview:Languageisalinguisticsystemaswellasameansfordoingthings.Learnerslearnalanguageinordertobeabletodothingswithit(useit).Toperformfunctions,learnersneedtoknowhowtocombinethegrammaticalrulesandthevocabularytoexpressnotionsthatperformthefunctions.3)Interactionalview:Languageisacommunicativetooltobuildupandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Learnersneedtoknowtherulesofalanguageandwhere,whenandhowitisappropriatetousethem.ViewsonLanguageLearningTwobroadlearningtheories：Process-orientedtheoriesareconcernedwithhowthemindorganizesnewinformation.Condition-orientedtheoriesemphasizethenatureofhumanandphysicalcontext.BehavioristtheoryB.F.SkinnerAstimulus-responsetheoryofpsychologyAudio-lingualmethodTheideaofthismethodisthatlanguageislearnedbyconstantrepetitionandthereinforcementoftheteacher.Mistakeswereimmediatelycorrected,andcorrectutteranceswereimmediatelypraised.CognitivetheoryInfluencedbyNoamChomsky(revivalofstructurallinguistics)Languageasanintricaterule-basedsystemAlearneracquireslanguagecompetencewhichenableshimtoproducelanguage.Oneinfluentialideaofcognitiveapproachtolanguageteachingisthatstudentsshouldbeallowedtocreatetheirownsentencebasedontheirownunderstandingofcertainrules.ConstructivisttheoryJeanPiaget(1896—1980)Thelearnerconstructsmeaningbasedonhis/herownexperiencesandwhatisalreadyknown.Socio-constructivisttheoryVygotsky“ZoneofProximalDevelopment”(ZPD);scaffolding(脚手架)Learningisbestachievedthroughthedynamicinteractionbetweentheteacherandthelearnerandbetweenlearners.1.4Whatarethequalitiesofagoodlanguageteacher?Agoodlanguageteacherdoesnotsolelydependonhis/hercommandofthelanguage.Thereareavarietyofelementthatcontributestothequalitiesofagoodlanguageteacher.Theseelementcanbecategorizedintothreegroups:ethicdevotion,professionalqualityandpersonalstyles.1.5Howcanonebecomeagoodlanguageteacher?Wallace’s(1991)‘reflectivemodel’(Figure1.1,p.9)Stage1:languagedevelopmentStage2:learning,practice,reflectionThelearningstageisthepurposefulpreparationthatalanguagenormallyreceivesbeforethepractice,Thispreparationcaninclude:1.Learningfromothers’experience2.Learningthereceivedknowledge3.Learningfromone’sownexperiencesThepracticestage(2senses)Pseudopractice:shortperiodoftimeassignedtodoteachingpracticeaspartofone’spre-serviceeducation,usuallyunderthesupervisionofinstructorsTherealclassroomteaching:whatateacherundertakesafterhe/shefinishesformaleducationTeachersbenefitfrompracticeiftheykeeponreflectingonwhattheyhavebeendoingGoal:professionalcompetenceUnit2CommunicativePrinciplesandTask-basedlanguageteaching2.1Howislanguagelearnedinclassroomsdifferentfromlanguageusedinreallife?LanguageusedinreallifeLanguagetaughtintheclassroomToperformcertaincommuntcativefunctionsTofocusonforms(structuresorpatterns)Useallskills,bothreceptiveskillsandproductiveskillsTofocusononeortwolanguageskillsandignoreothers.UsedinacertaincontextToisolatelanguagefromitscontext2.2Whatiscommunicativecompetence?Tobridgethegapbetweenclassroomlanguageteachingandreal-lifelanguageuse,onesolutionistoadoptCLT,thegoalofwhichistodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.2.2.1Definition:Communicativecompetenceincludeboththeknowledgeaboutthelanguageandtheknowledgeabouthowtousethelanguageappropriatelyincommunicativesituations2.2.2Fivecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence(Hedge2000)Linguisticcompetence（语言能力）Theknowledgeoflanguageitself,itsformandmeaning.Pragmaticcompetence（语用能力）Theappropriateuseoflanguageinsocialcontext.Discoursecompetence（语篇能力）One’sabilitytocreatecoherentwrittentextorconversationandtheabilitytounderstandthemStrategiccompetence（策略能力）Strategiesoneemployswhenthereiscommunicationbreakdownduetolackofresources.Fluency（流利性）One‘sabilityto‘linkunitsofspeechtogetherwithfacilityandwithoutstrainorinappropriateslownessorundue（过分的，不适当的）hesitation’2.3ImplicationsforteachingandlearningTeachingmustenablelearnerstograspthefivecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence,butnotjustthelinguisticcompetence.2.4PrinciplesofCLTThreeprinciplessuggestbyRichardandRodgers：1Communicationprinciple：involverealcommunication2Taskprinciple：Carryoutmeaningfultasks3Meaningfulnessprinciple：MeaningfullanguagetothelearnerHowattproposesaweakandastrongversionofCLT:WeakversionLearnersfirstacquirelanguageasastructuralsystemandthenlearnhowtouseitincommunication.Strongversion“languageisacquiredthroughcommunication”(Howatt,1984:279)2.5MajorActivityTypesofCLTAsequenceofactivitiesrepresentedinLittlewood(1981:86)Pre-communicativeactivitiesStructuralactivitiesQuasi-communicativeactivities类似,准,半Communicativeactivities(PP22-23)FunctionalcommunicationactivitiesSocialinteractionactivities2.6SixCriteriaforevaluatingcommunicativeclassroomactivities(mainfeaturesofcommunicativeactivities?)CommunicativepurposeCommunicativedesireContent,notformVarietyoflanguageNoteacherinterventionNomaterialscontrol2.7WhatisTask-basedLanguageTeaching?TBLTisafurtherdevelopmentofCLT.Itsharesthesamebeliefintheuseoflanguageinreallife,butstressestheimportancetocombineform-focusedteachingwithcommunication-focusedteaching.2.7.1FourcomponentsofataskApurposeAcontextAprocessAproduct2.7.2Exercises,exercise-tasksandtasksExercise-tasksishalfwaybetweentasksandexercises.Thiskindofactivityconsistsofcontextualizedpracticeoflanguageitem.2.8DifferencesbetweenPPPandTBLT1ThewaystudentsuseandexperiencelanguageinTBLTisradicallydifferentfromPPP.*Freeoflanguagecontrol*Agenuineneedtouselanguagetocommunicate*Afreeexchangeofideas*Appropriateness&accuracyoflanguageformingeneral,notproductionofasingleform*Agenuineneedforaccuracyandfluency2.TBLcanprovideacontextforgrammarteachingandform-focusedactivities.PPPisdifferentinthisaspect.■Atask-establishedcontextEncouragedtothink,analyze,notsimplytorepeat,manipulateandapplyAmorevariedexposuretonaturallanguageLanguageformsnotpre-selectedforfocusLearner-freeselectionoflanguageTBLcycleleadfromFluencytoaccuracy(+fluency)InTBLIntegratedskillspracticed2.9Howtodesigntasks?Step1Thinkaboutstudents’needs,interests,andabilitiesStep2BrainstormpossibletasksStep3EvaluatethelistStep4ChoosethelanguageitemsStep5Preparingmaterials2.10CLTandTBLTintheChinesecontextProblemswithCLT1.Theveryfirstandforcefulargumentiswhetheritisculturallyappropriate2.ThesecondproblemofCLTrelatetothedesignthesyllabusforteachingpurposeintheclassroom.3.Thethirdproblemisthatwhethersuchanapproachissuitableforallageleveloflearnersorallcompetenceleveloflearners.ConstraintsofTBLTThefirstisitmaynotbeeffectiveforpresentingnewlanguageitemsThesecondconstraintisTimeasteachershavetopreparetask-basedactivitiesverycarefully.ThethirdisthecultureoflearningTheforthisLevelofdifficultyUnit33.1AbriefhistoryofforeignlanguageteachinginChinaAphaseofrestoration(1978-1985)Aphaseofrapiddevelopment(1986-1992)Aphaseofreform(1993-2000)Aphaseofinnovationfrom20003.2DesigningprinciplesfortheNationalEnglishCurriculum1) Aimforeducatingallstudents,andemphasizequality-orientededucation.2)Promotelearner-centeredness,andrespectindividualdifferences.3)Developcompetence-basedobjectives,andallowflexibilityandadaptability.4)Paycloseattentiontothelearningprocess,andadvocateexperientiallearningandparticipation.5) Attachparticularimportancetoformativeassessment,andgivespecialattentiontothedevelopmentofcompetence.6)Optimizelearningresources,andmaximizeopportunitiesforlearningandusingthelanguage.3.3GoalsandobjectivesofEnglishlanguageteachingThenewcurriculumisdesignedtopromotestudents’overalllanguageability,whichiscomposedoffiveinterrelatedcomponents,namely,languageskills,languageknowledge,affects,learningstrategiesandculturalunderstanding.Eachcomponentisfurtherdividedintoafewsub-categories.Languageteachingisnolongeraimedonlyfordevelopinglanguageskillsandknowledge,butexpandedtodevelopinglearners’positiveattitude,motivation,confidenceaswellasstrategiesforlife-longlearningalongwithcross-culturalknowledge,awarenessandcapabilities.Theoveralllanguageabilityrequiredinthe2001NationalEnglishCurriculumincludesthefollowingaspectslanguageknowledge,languageskills,learningstrategies,affectsandculturalunderstanding.3.4DesignoftheNationalEnglishCurriculum3.5Thestandardsfordifferentlevelsofcompetence3.6ChallengesfacingEnglishlanguageteachers1) Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtochangetheirviewsaboutlanguagewhichisnotasystemoflinguisticknowledgebutameansforcommunication.2) Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtochangetheirtraditionalroleofaknowledgetransmittertoamulti-roleeducator.3) Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoretask-basedactivitiesandputthestudentsatthecenteroflearning.4) Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoreformativeassessmentinadditiontousingtests.5) Englishlanguageteachersareexpectedtousemoderntechnologyinteaching,creatingmoreeffectiveresourcesforlearningandforusingthelanguage.Unit4.LessonPlanning备课4.1whyisLessonPlanningImportantAlessonplanisaframeworkofalessoninwhichteachersmakeadvancedecisionsaboutwhattheyhopetoachieveandhowtheywouldliketoachieveit.Properlessonplanisessentialforbothnoviceandexperiencedteachers.Languageteachersbenefitfromlessonplanninginanumberofways.Makesteachersawareoftheaimsandlanguagecontentsofthelesson,soastoplantheactivitiesandchoosethetechniquesaccordingly;Helpsteachersdistinguishthevariousstagesofalessonandseetherelationshipbetweenthemsothattheactivitiesofdifferentdifficultylevelscanbearrangedproperlyandthelessoncanmovesmoothlyfromonestagetoanother;Givesteacherstheopportunitytoanticipatepotentialproblemssothattheycanbeprepared;Givesteachers,esp.noviceones,confidenceinclass;Raisesteachers’awarenessoftheteachingaidsneeded;Planningisagoodpracticeandasignofprofessionalism.Teachersbenefitfromproperlessonplansinanumberofotherways:Toenabletheteachertoimproveclasstiming;Lessonplansarealsoanaidtocontinuingdevelopment(plan-practice-reflection)4.2PrinciplesforGoodLessonPlanningAim:therealisticgoalsforthelesson;whatstudentsareabletodobytheendofthelesson;Variety:differenttypesofactivities;awideselectionofmaterials;Flexibility:preparingsomeextraandalternativetasksandactivitiesLearnability:thecontentsandtasksplannedshouldbewithinthelearningcapabilityofthestudentsDoingthingsthatarebeyondorbelowthestudents’copingabilitywilldiminishtheirmotivation(Schumann,1999)Linkage:thestagesandthestepswithineachstagearelinkedwithoneanother.4.3whataremacroplanningandmicroplanning?MacroplanningPlanningoveralongperiodoftimewhichisoftendonebyagroupofteachers,itprovidesageneralguidanceforlanguageteachersMicroplanningPlanningforaspecificunitoralesson,whichusuallylastsfromonetotwoweeksorfortytofiftyminutesrespectively.Microplanningisoftenanindividualactivityanddifferentteachersmayhavedifferentwaysofwritingtheirownlessonplans.Macroplanninginvolvesthefollowing：KnowingabouttheprofessionKnowingabouttheinstitutionKnowingaboutthelearnersKnowingaboutthecurriculum/syllabusKnowingaboutthetextbookKnowingabouttheobjectivesAlessonplanusuallyhasthefollowingcomponents:BackgroundinformationTeachingaimsTeachingcontentandskillsStagesandproceduresTeachingaidsEndoflessonsummaryOptionalactivitiesandAssignmentAfterlessonreflectionUnit5ClassroomManagement5.1Whatisclassroommanagement?Classroommanagementisthewayteachersorganizewhatgoesonintheclassroom.(68)thegoalofclassroommanagementistocreateanatmosphereconduciveto(有助于)interactinginEnglishinmeaningfulways(Gebhard,1996).Efficientclassroommanagementcanbeachievedwhenthefollowingsixconditionsaremet.Theteacherplaysappropriateroles.Theteacherprovidesclearerinstructions.Studentsaregroupedinawaysuitableforthelearningactivities.Thereisdisciplineaswellasharmonyintheclass.Theteacherasksappropriatequestions.Thestudents’errorsaretreatedproperly5.2Whatrolesdoestheteacherplay?Controller(whattolearn;howtolearn)Assessor(correctingmistakes;organizingfeedback)Organiser(students’activities)Prompter(whenssdon’tknowwhattodo…)Participant(inss’activities)Resource-providerTeachers’rolesarenotstatic.Theychangewiththedevelopmentofthesociety.Newroles:TeacherasfacilitatorCreateapositivelearningenvironment,usevariousstrategiestomotivatelearners,guidestudentsinplanningandassessingtheirlearninganddeveloptheirlearningstrategies…TeacherasguideActivatestudents’priorknowledge;findindividualinterestsandexplorepotentialcapabilities;acknowledgeandrespectindividualdifferences;giveeachequalopportunityinlearning;evaluatestudents’developmentfairlyfromanall-roundperspective…TeacherasresearcherObserveaproblem,reflectonthereasons,thinkaboutpossiblesolutions,implementthesolutionsandevaluatetheresults…Q:Howmuchcontrolisneeded?AppropriatedegreeofcontrolDifferentactivitiesneedadifferentdegreesofcontrol.Themorecommunicativeanactivity,thelesscontrolitneeds.Q:Whatdoestheteacherdoasanassessor?CorrectingmistakesThecorrectingshouldbegentle,notharsh.OrganizingfeedbackThefeedbackshouldbefocusedonstudents’successorprogresssothatasuccess-orientedlearningatmospherecanbecreated.Q:Howtoorganise?Beforetheactivity:whattheactivityisgoingtobelike,anticipatedproblems;clearinstructionsgiventostudents(withT’sdemonstration)Duringtheactivity:overhearwhatthestudentsaresaying,rectifywrongpractices;takenotesforlaterfeedbackQ:Whentoprompt?Whenstudentsarenotsurehowtostartanactivity,orwhattodonext,orwhattosaynext…Whenastudentdoesn’tseemtobereadyforananswer,…Whenastudentfinisheswithaveryshortanswer,…Q:whytoparticipateinstudent’sactivities?Monitoring+participatingchangestherolefromanauthoritytoaconversationalist,agoodchanceforstudentstopractiseEnglishwithasuperior…Q:Whatdoyouthinkofthejug-and-mugmetaphor?Althoughthejug-and-mugmethodhasbeenwidelycriticised,theteacherisstillconsideredagoodandconvenientresourceforthestudents.”5.3Howtogiveeffectiveclassroominstructions?Classroominstructionsrefertothetypeoflanguageteachersusetoorganizeorguidelearning.Tousesimpleinstructionsandmakethemsuitthecomprehensionlevelofthestudents;Tousethemother-tongueonlywhenitisnecessary;GivestudentstimetogetusedtolisteningtoEnglishinstructions;Usebodylanguagetoassistunderstanding;Modelthetask/activitybeforelettingstudentsintogroupsorpairs…Teachersarenotexpectedtodoallthetalkinginclass.Tip:Demonstrationisusuallymoreeffectivethanwords.5.4Whatarethedifferentwaysforstudentgrouping?Wholeclasswork,pairwork,groupwork,individualstudyWholeclassworkAllthestudentsareunderthecontroloftheteacher,doingthesameactivityatthesamerhythmandpace.PairworkStudentsworkinpairsonanexerciseortask.GroupworkStudentsworkinsmallgroupsof3-5students.IndividualstudyStudentsworkontheirownattheirownspeed.Q:Howtogroup?(Groupingmethods)Wholeclassworkisnormallyusedwhenpresentingandexplainingnewlanguageornewinformationanditshouldbeusedwiselybytheteachers.Successfulgroup/pairworkdependsonskillfulorganization.Thebiggestproblemforgroupworkistheselectionofgroupmembers.Whileteachersareencouragetousepairwokandgroupworktoprovidemorepracticechance,individualstudyshouldnotbeforgotten.TypesofstudentgroupingandtheiradvantagesanddisadvantagesinP314(task4)5.5DisciplineinthelanguageclassroomQ:Whatdoesdisciplinemean?Disciplinereferstoacodeofconductwhichbindsateacherandagroupofstudentstogethersothatlearningcanbemoreeffective.(78)Q:Doesdisciplineguaranteeeffectivelearning?No.Theremightbelittlelearningeventheclassisverydisciplined.Althoughdisciplineisnecessary,itisnotasufficientconditionforeffectivelearningasathoroughlyindisciplinedatmospherewillsurelyyieldnolearningatall.(79)Q:Howtomaintaindiscipline?P.79Althoughdisciplineisoftendiscussedtogetherwithclassroommanagement,Classroommanagementskillsarenotsufficientifdisciplineistobeachieved，rather，avarietyofteacher’sbehaviorcontributetodiscipline,suchastheteacher’schoiceofmethodology,theirinterpersonalrelationshipswithstudents,theirpreparationforthelesson.Beside,student’smotivation,whichcanbeenhancedbytheteacheraction,isextremelyimportantfordiscipline.Whenstudentsareengagedinlearning,theywillbedisciplined.(79)Ssareclearaboutlearningpurpose;Ssareabletodotheworkbutfinditchallenging;Ssareemotionally,physicallyandintellectuallyinvolvedbythetasks;Thepresentation,varietyandstructureoftheworkandactivitiesgeneratecuriosityandinterest;Sshaveopportunitiestoaskquestionsandtryoutideas;Sscanseewhattheyhaveachievedandhowtheyhadmadeprogress;Ssgetafeelingofsatisfactionandenjoymentfromthework.Q:Whatcausesdisciplineproblems?Agapinthelesson(e.g.badplanning,equipmentfailstowork)UnclearinstructionsLackofteacherattentionTheteacherconcentratesonlengthyexplanationstooneindividualsothattheothersgetboredWorkistooeasyortoochallengingQ:Whatmeasurescanwetakeforundisciplinedactsandbadlybehavingstudents?Harmer(1983)p.81Actimmediately.Stoptheclass.Rearrangetheseats.Changetheactivity.Talktostudentsafterclass.Createacodeofbehavior.Ur’s(1996)adviceDealwithitquietly.Don’ttakethingspersonally.Don’tusethreats.5.6Howtomakequestioningmoreeffective?Questionsshouldbecloselylinkedtothelearningobjectivesinthelesson;Questionsshouldbestagedsothatthelevelofchallengeincreasesasthelessonproceeds;Thereshouldbeabalancebetweenclosedandopen,lower-orderandhigher-orderquestions;Waittimeisimportanttoallowstudentstothinkthroughtheiranswers;Ssshouldbeprovidedopportunitiestoasktheirownquestionsandseektheirownanswers;Asecureandrelaxedatmosphereoftrustisneededandss’opinionsandideasarevalued.5.6.2Whattypesofquestionsarethere?(Classificationofquestions)Closedandopenquestions;Displayandgenuinequestions;Lower-orderandhigh-orderquestions;Bloom’staxonomy分类系统(Nuttall,1982)KnowledgeComprehensionApplicationAnalysisSynthesisEvaluation5.7DealingwitherrorsQ:Whatareerrors?Howaretheydifferentfrommistakes?Amistakerefersto“aperformanceerrorthatiseitherarandomguessora‘slipoftongue’,anditisafailureperformancetoaknownsystem”(Brown,2000:218-219)Anerrorhasdirectrelationwiththelearner’slanguagecompetence.Errorsdonotresultfromcarelessnessnorhesitation,butlackofknowledgeinthetargetlanguage.Amistakecanbeself-corrected;anerrorcannotbe.Q:Howtodealwitherrors?Indealingwitherrorsandmistakesweneedtobeclearwhetherthetaskoractivityisfocusingonaccuracyorfluency.Q:Whentocorrecterrors?Generally,itisbestnottointerruptstudentsduringfluencyworkunlesscommunicationbreaksdown.Letatrivialmistakepassifmostofthelanguageisright.Forsomecommonmistakes,takeanoteinmindfirstandcorrectafterthestudent’sperformance.Q:Howtocorrecterrors?Differentwaysandtechniques:DirectteachercorrectionIndirectteachercorrectionSelf-correctionPeercorrectionWholeclasscorrectionQ:Whichtechniquestouse?Asageneralrule,indirectteachercorrectionisencouragedratherthandirectonestoavoiddamagingss’self-esteemandconfidence.Inpractice,self-correctionisencouragedbeforeteachercorrectionorpeercorrection,esp.formistakes.Thewholeclasscorrectionisusedformainerrortypes(e.g.TheBigTen)SummaryRolesoftheteacher:controller,assessor,organiser,prompter,participant,resource-provider,facilitator,guide,researcher,etc.Classroominstructions:simple;suitthelevelofstudentsGrouping:wholeclasswork,groupwork,pairwork,individualstudyDiscipline:toengagessinlearning;howtomaintaindiscipline,howtotreatwithundisciplinedactsQuestioning:differentclassifications;questioningtechniquesErrorcorrection:errorandmistake;differentwaysandtechniquesforcorrectingerrorsUnit6TeachingPronunciationCriticalPeriodHypothesis:abiologicallydeterminedperiodoflifewhenlanguagecanbeacquiredmoreeasilyandbeyondwhichtimelanguageisincreasingdifficulttoacquire.6.1TheroleofpronunciationDebateSideA:studentsdonotneedtolearnpronunciationbecausepronunciationwilltakecareofitselfasthestudentsdevelopoveralllanguageability.SideB:Failureinpronunciationisagreathindrancetolanguagelearning.Viewso