英语课件Chapter6 Lg and cognition

Chapter6Languageandcognition6.1Whatiscognition?1.JeanPiaget—commonalities(Lg&Cog.)2.Itreferstothementalprocessofanindividual,withparticularrelationtoaviewthatarguesthatthemindhasinternalmentalstates(beliefs,desires,andintentions)andcanbeunderstoodintermsofinfor.processing,especiallywhenalotofabstractionorconcretizationisinvolved,orprocessessuchasinvolvingkg,expertiseorlearningforexampleareatwork.Oritisthementalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingaspectssuchasawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.3.Threeapproachestostudyoflg&cog:(1)Theformal~:structuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.(2)Thepsychological~:studylgfromtheperspectiveofrelativelygeneralcognitivesystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attentiontoreasoning(3)Theconceptual~:howlanguagestructures(processes&patterns)conceptualcontent.4.Cognitivels:thestructuringwithinlg,thelcstructure,semanticstructure,interrelationshipsofconceptualstructures…globalintegratedsystemofconceptualstructuringinlg6.2Whatispsycholinguistics?1.Itstudiesthepsychologicalaspectsoflg;thepsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflg;lgacquisition(inchildren)&lcperformance(producingandcomprehending…inadults).2.Lg—thought(function)3.relateddisciplines:structuralls,cognitivepsychology,anthropologyorneurosciences(Chomsky:TGmodel)4.Sixsubjectsofresearch:(1)acquisition(L1/L2)(2)comprehension(3)production(4)disorders(5)lg&thought(6)neurocognition6.2.1Lgacquisition1.Itreferstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue;howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelgofhiscommunity.2.processesoflgacquisition:(1)Holophrasticstage(firstyear)a.lgsoundpatternsb.phoneticdistinctionsinparents’lgc.one-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines(twom—ayear),using(2)Two-wordstage(around18m):vocabularyandsyntaxe.g.Isit,allwet,ourcar,papaaway…(3)Stageofthree-wordutteranceswordordere.g.Givedoggiepaper./Tractorgofloor.(4)Fluentgrammaticalconversationstage(before3years)Increasingsentencelength,syntactictypes,embeddingoneconstituentinsideanother(Givebigdoggiepaper.)6.2.2Lgcomprehensionmorefunctionwords(telegramsmissingfunctionwordslikeof,the,…andinflectionslike–ed,-ing,…,but90%sens.before3)Allpartsofalllgareacquiredbefore4.3.mentallexicon:infor.aboutpropertiesofwords,retrievablewhenunderstandinglge.g.morphologicalrulestodecomposerewritablethefirstfewtimesweencounteritandafterseveralexposures--storeandaccessitasaunitorword.---frequencyofexposuredeterminesourabilitytorecallstoredinstancesConnectionism:readersusethesamesystemoflinksbetweenspellingunitsandsoundunitstogeneratethepronunciationsofwrittenwordsliketoveandtoaccessthepronunciationsoffamiliarwordslikestove,orwordsthatareexceptionstothesepatterns,likelove.Similarityandfrequencyplayimportantrolesinprocessingandcomprehendinglanguage,withthenovelitemsbeingprocessedbasedontheirsimilaritytotheknownones.4.processesoflgcomprehension:(1)wordrecognitionThecohortmodelbyMarslen-Wilson&Welshin1990,thefirstfewphonemesofaspokenwordactivateasetorcohortofwordcandidatesthatareconsistentwiththeinput.(“pickupthecandle”-candy)Interactivemodel:Higherprocessinglevelshaveadirect,“top-down”influenceonlowerlevels.Lexicalkgcanaffecttheperceptionofphonemes.Thereisinteractivityintheformoflexicaleffectsontheperceptionofsub-lexicalunits.Incertaincases,listeners’knowledgeofwordscanleadtotheinhibitionofcertainphonemes;inothercases,listenerscontinueto“hear”phonemesthathavebeenremovedfromthespeechsignalandreplacedbynoise.Racemodel:Pre-lexicalroute:computesphonologicalinformationfromtheacousticsignal;Lexicalroute:thephonologicalinformationassociatedwithawordbecomesavailablewhentheworditselfisaccessedWhenword-levelinformationappearstoaffectalower-levelprocess,itisassumedthatthelexicalroutewontherace.Howdolistenerscomprehendlg?(1)Listeners’kgoflganditspatternsfacilitatesperceptioninsomeways.(/tl/toidentityphonemesandwordboundaries.)(2)TheyusekgthatEnglishwordsareoftenstressedonthefirstsyllabletohelpparsethespeechsignalintowords.(3)Readersusethecluestomorphologicalstructurethatareembeddedinorthographyinreadingtheprintedwords.(reprint—revive)(2)comprehensionofsentencesSerialmodelsproposethatsentencecomprehensionsystemcontinuallyandsequentiallyfollowstheconstraintsofalg’sgrammarwithremarkablespeed.Itdescribeshowtheprocessorquicklyconstructsoneormorerepresentationsofasentencebasedonarestrictedrangeofinformationthatisguaranteedtoberelevanttoitsinterpretation,primarilygrammaticalinformation.Anysuchrepresentationisthenquicklyinterpretedandevaluated,usingthefullrangeofinformationthatmightberelevant.Parallelmodelsemphasizethatthecomprehensionsystemissensitivetoavastrangeofinformation,includinggrammatical,lexical,andcontextual,aswellasknowledgeofthespeaker/writerandoftheworldingeneral.Itdescribeshowtheprocessorusesallrelevantinformationtoquicklyevaluatethefullrangeofpossibleinterpretationsofasentence.Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatlistenersandreadersintegrategrammaticalandsituationalknowledgeinunderstandingasentence.Structuralfactorsincomprehension:Comprehensionofwrittenandspokenlanguagecanbedifficultbecauseitisnotalwayseasytoidentifytheconstituents(phrases)ofasentenceandthewaysinwhichtheyrelatetooneanother.Psycholinguistshaveproposedprinciplesinterpretingsentencecomprehensionwithrespecttothegrammaticalconstraints.Minimalattachment:the“structurallysimpler”--structuralsimplicityguidesallinitialanalysesinsentencecomprehension.e.g.Thesecondwifewillclaimtheinheritancebelongstoher.Atfirst,readersinterpretitastheDOofclaimorthesubjectofbelongs,whichdisambiguatesthesentence.Readersweredisruptedwhentheyhadtorevisethisinitialinterpretationtotheoneinwhichtheinheritanceissubjectofbelongs.TheydescribedthereadersasbeingleddownagardenpathbecausetheDOanalysisisstructurallysimplerthantheotherpossibleanalysis.Someexamplesofgardenpathsentences:(1)Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.(2)Themanwhohuntsducksoutonweekends.(3)ThecottonclothingisusuallymadeofgrowsinMississippi.(4)Fatpeopleeataccumulates.Lexicalfactorsincomprehension:Thehumansentenceprocessorisprimarilyguidedbyinformationaboutspecificwordsthatisstoredinthelexicon.e.g.Thesalesmanglancedata/thecustomerwithsuspicion/rippedjeans.(3)comprehensionoftextResonancemodel:informationinlong-termmemoryisautomaticallyactivatedbythepresenceofmaterialthatapparentlybearsaroughsemanticrelationtoit.6.2.3Lgproduction1.variousaspectsofprocessoflgproduction:ConceptualizationandlinearizationGrammaticalandphonologicalencoding,Self-monitoring,self-repair,gesturingduringspeech2.Spokenlgproduction:(1)Accesstowordsa.conceptualization:whatnotiontoexpress(“thebaby”,“he”)b.wordselection:asyntacticwordunit-acompetitiveprocessc.morpho-phologicalencoding:retrievalofmorphemestotheword-targetwords(2)GenerationofsentencesConceptualpreparation—decidingwhattosay,aglobalplanWordretrievalandapplicationofsyntactickgProcessesofsyntacticstructure:a.Functionalplanning:assigninggrammaticalfunctions,suchassubjects,verb,orDOb.Positionalencoding:usingretrievedlexicon-grammarunitsandfunctionsassignedtogeneratesyntacticstructuresthatcapturethedependenciesamongconstituentsandtheirorder.(S+V.+DO/IO)(3)WrittenlgproductionSimilartospokenlanguage.Orthographicforminsteadofphonologicalform.However,phonologyplaysanimportantroleinthisprocess.(“phoque”(seal)or“pipe”)Thetimeofwritingtheformerislonger.Writershavemoretimeavailableforconceptualpreparationandplanning.6.3Whatiscognitivels?Cognitiveisthewaywethink.Cognitivelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoftherelationbetweenthewaywecommunicateandthewaywethink.Itisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonhumanexperiencesoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.6.3.1Construal&~operations1.Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregationetc.2.Construaloperationsareconceptualizingprocessesusedinlgprocessbyhumanbeings.Theyaretheunderlyingpsychologicalprocessesandresourcesemployedintheinterpretationoflcexpressions.(ByTalmy,Lakoff,…)3.(1)Attention/SalienceTheoperationshavetodowithourdirectionofattentiontowardssth.thatissalienttous.(perceivedscenery,conceptualstructures—relevantconcepts)e.g.6-4a.Hecleanedthewindow.b.Heopenedthewindow.Ina,itdrawsattentiontotheglassbuttheframeofthewindowinb.(2)Judgment/ComparisonTheoperationshavetodowithjudgingsth.bycomparingittosth.else.Thefigure-groundalignmentseemstoapplytospacewiththegroundastheprep.O.andtheprep.expressingthespatialrelationalconfiguration.Langacker(1987):trajector—amovingfigure;landmark—groundofamovingfogure.---distinguishingthestaticanddynamicfigure-groundrelationsEx.6-6a.There’sacat[figure]onthemat[ground]b.Batman[figure]wasstandingontheroof[ground]c.We[trajector]wentacrossthefield[landmark]d.He[trajector]’mgoingtoLondon[landmark](3)Perspective/SituatednessItgenerallydependsontwothings:a.wherewearesituatedinrelationtothescenewe'reviewing.b.howthesceneisarrangedinrelationtooursituatedness.Ex.6-7a.Mybikeisinfrontofthecar.b.Mybikeisbehindthecar.Deixisinvolveslcformsthatpointatsth.fromthespeechsituation.(that—thisfordistanceandproximity)[person,social,texual/discursivedeixis]6.3.2categorizationTheprocessofclassifyingourexperiencesintodifferentcategoriesbasedoncommonalitiesanddifferences;Amajoringredientinthecreationofhumanknowledge;AllowsustorelatepresentexperiencestopastonesThreelevels:basiclevelsuperordinatelevelsubordinatelevel.(1)Basiclevel:culturallysalienttofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest,likesdogsdifferscats.Itisthemostinclusivelevel(atwhichtherearecharacteristicpatternsofbehavioralinteraction);forwhichaclearvisualimagecanbeformed;atwhichpart-wholeinformationisrepresented;usedforeverydayreference.(2)Superordinatelevel:themostgeneralone.Itscategoriesarelessgoodonesthanbasiclevelones,withitsmembersdistinctfromneighboringones,butwith-incategoryresemblancerelativelylow;havefewerdefiningfeatures;Immediatesuperordinatesofbasiclevelonesoftenhaveasingleattributiontoahigherone;namesofthiscategoryareoftenmassnounswhenbasiconesarecountnouns.(3)Subordinatelevel:morphologicallycomplexwithcompositeformslikeraincoat,applejuice,…They’relessgoodthanbasic,becausemembersresemblancebutlowdistinctivenessfromneighboringones;lessinformativerelativetoimmediatesuperiorcategories;oftenpolymorphemicwithmodifier-head6.3.3ImageschemaMarkJohnson(1987)definesanimageschemaasarecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.(1)Acenter-peripheryschemaItinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesofdistancefromthecore,likethestructureofanapple,…(2)AcontainmentschemaItinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundary,enclosed(excluded)areaorvolume.(3)AcycleschemaItinvolvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludes:astartingpoint,aprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktracking,areturntotheinitialstateTheschemaoftenhassuperimposedonitastructurethatbuildstowardaclimaxandthengoesthroughareleaseordecline,likedays,weeks,…(4)AforceschemaItinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.Itincludesasourceandtargetoftheforce,adirectionandintensityoftheforce,apathofmotionofthesourceand/ortarget,asequenceofcausation,likeanattractionschema,abalanceone,…(5)Alinkschemaconsistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andthebondbetweenthem,like“Achildholdinghermother’shand”(6)Apart-wholeschemainvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.(7)Apathschemainvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.(8)Ascaleschemainvolvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamount,andconsistsofanyofthefollowing:aclosed-oropen-endedprogressionofamount;apositionintheprogressionofamount;oneormorenormsofamount;acalibrationofamount.(9)Averticalityschemainvolves“up”and“down”relations,likestandingupright,…6.3.4metaphor1.Itinvolvesthecomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.Itisdescribedintermsofatargetdomain(experiencebeingdescribedbythemetaphor)andasourcedomain(meansthatweusetodescribetheexperience).2.Lakoff&Johonson(1980):3ofconceptualmataphors(1)Ontological~:humanexperienceswithphysicalobjectsprovidethebasisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,emotions,ideas,etc.asentitiesandsubstances(2)Structural~allowsustogobeyondorientationandreferringandgivesusthepossibilitytostructureoneconceptaccordingtoanother.Theyaregroundedinourexperience.(3)Orientional~givesaconceptaspatialorientation,basedonhumanphysicalandculturalexperience.6.3.5MetonomyItisacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalaccesstothetargetwithinthesamedomain.ItsmodelisIdealizedCognitiveModels(ICMs)byLakoff(1987),conceptualmappingsbyRadden&Kovecses(1999),domainhighlightingbyCroft(2002),combinationsofmappingsandhighlightingbyRuizdeMendoza(2000),scenariosbyPanther&Thornburg(1999)andmoregenerallyasreference-pointactivationbyLangacker(1999)andBarcelona(2000).Onthebasisoftheontologicalrealms,wemaydistinguishthreecategories:theworldof“concept”,theworldof“form”,theworldof“things”and“events”.Theyroughlycorrespondtothethreeentitiesthatcomprisethewell-knownsemantictriangle.TheinterrelationsbetweenentitiesofthesameorfromdifferentontologicalrealmsleadtovariousICMsandpossibilitiesformetonymy.Thus,wehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:SignICMs,ReferenceICMsandConceptICMs.Twogeneralconceptualconfigurations:wholeICManditspart(s)partsofanICM.(1)WholeICManditspart(s)(i)Thing-and-PartICM,whichmayleadtotwometonymicvariants:WHOLETHINGFORAPARTORTHETHING:Americafor“UnitedStates”PARTOFATHNGFORTHEWHOLETHING:Englandfor“GreatBritain”(ii)ScaleICM.Scalesareaspecialclassofthingsandthescalarunitsarepartsofthem.Typically,ascaleasawholeisusedforitsupperendandtheupperendofascaleisusedtostandforthescaleasawhole:WHOLESCALEFORUPPERENDOFTHESCALE:Henryisspeedingagainfor“Henryisgoingtoofast.”UPPERENDOFASCALEFORWHOLESCALE:Howoldareyou?for“whatisyourage?”(iii)ConstitutionICM.Itinvolvesmatter,materialorsubstanceswhichareseenasconstitutingathing.OBJECTFORMATERIALCONSTITUTINGTHEOBJECT:Ismellskunk.MATERIALCONSTITUTINGANOBJECTFORTHEOBJECT:woodfor“forest” (iv)EventICM.Eventsmaybemetaphoricallyviewedasthingswhichmayhaveparts.WHOLEEVENTFORSUBEVENT:Billsmokedmarijuana.SUBEVENTFORWHOLEEVENT:MaryspeaksSpanish.(v)Category-and-MemberICM.Acategoryanditsmembersstandinakindofrelation.CATEGORYFORAMEMBEROFTHECATEGORY:thepillfor“birthcontrolpill”MEMBEROFACATEGORYFORTHECATEGORY:aspirinfor“anypain-relievingtablet”(vi)Cateory-and-PropertyICM.Propertiesmayeitherbeseenmetaphoricallyaspossessedobjects(PROPERTIESAREPOSSESSIONS)ormetonymicallyaspartsofanobject.CATEGORYFORDEFININGPROPERTY:jerkfor“stupidity”DEFNINGPROPERTYFORCATEGORY:blacksfor“blackpeople”(vii)ReductionICM.AfinaltypeofaPARTFORWHOLEmetonymyisfoundinthereductionoftheformofasign.PARTOFAFORMFORTHEWHOLEFORM:crudefor“crudeoil”(2)PartsofanICM(i)ActionICM.Itinvolvesavarietyofparticipantswhichmayberelatedtothepredicateexpressingtheactionortoeachother.AGENTFORACTION:toauthoranewbook;tobutcherthecowACTIONFORAGENT:writer,driverINSTRUMENTFORACTION:toski,tohammerACTIONFORINSTRUMENT:pencilsharpener;screwdriverOBJECTFORACTION:toblanketthebed;todusttheroomACTIONFOROBJECT:thebestbites;theflightiswaitingtodepartRESULTFORACTION:tolandscapethegardenACTIONFORRESULT:theproduction;theproductMANNERFORACTION:totiptoeintotheroomMEANSFORACTION:Hesneezedthetissueoffthetable.TIMEFORACTION:tosummerinParisDESTINATIONFORMOTION:toporchthenewspaperINSTRUMENTFORAGENT:thepenfor“writer”(ii)PerceptionICM.PerceptionplayssuchanoutstandroleinourcognitiveworldthatitmeritsanICMofitsown.Sinceperceptionsmayalsobeintentional,thePerceptionICMmaycross-classifywiththeActionICM.THINGPERCEIVEDFORPERCEPTION:Theregoesmykneefor“Theregoesthepaininmyknee”PERCEPTIONFORTHINGPERCEIVED:sightfor“thingseen”(iii)CausationICM.Causeandeffectaresocloselyinterdependentthatoneofthemtendstoimplytheother.Moreover,theyprobablyaccountforthefactthatpeopleoftenconfusecausesandeffects.Inprinciple,thecausationICMmaygiverisetoreversiblemetonymies:CAUSEFOREFFECT:healthycomplexionfor“thegoodstateofhealthbringingabouttheeffectofhealthycomplexion”EFFECTFROCAUSE:slowroadfor“slowtrafficresultingfromthepoorstateoftheroad”(iv)ProductionICM.Itinvolvesactionsinwhichoneoftheparticipantsisaproductcreatedbytheaction.Theproductionofobjectsseemstobeaparticularlysalienttypeofcausalaction.PRODUCTIONFORPRODUCT:I’vegotaFordfor“car”INSTRUMENTFORPRODUCT:Didyouhearthewhistle?For“itssound”PRODUCTFORINSTRUMENT:toturnuptheheatfor“theradiator”PLACEFORPROCUCTMADETHERE:china,mocha,camembert(v)ControlICM.Itincludesacontrollerandapersonorobjectcontrolled.Itgivesrisetoreversiblemetonymicrelationships:CONTROLLERFORCONTROLLED:NixonbombedHanoi.CONTROLLEDFORCONTROLLER:TheMercedeshasarrived.(vi)PossessionICM.ThepossessionICMmayleadtoreversiblemetonymies:POSSESSORFORPOSSESSED:That’smefor“mybus”;Iamparkedtherefor“Mycar”POSSESSEDFORPOSSESSOR:Hemarriedmoneyfor“personwithmoney”(vii)ContainmentICM.Theimage-schematicsituationofcontainmentissobasicandwell-entrenchedthatitdeservestobetreatedasanICMofitsownamonglocationalrelations.--CONTAINERFORCONTENTS:Thebottleissourfor“milk”CONTENTSFORCONTAINER:Themilktippedoverfor“themilkcontainertippedover”(viii)LocationICMs.Placesareoftenassociatedwithpeoplelivingthere,well-knowninstitutionslocatedthere,eventswhichoccuroroccurredthereandgoodsproducedorshippedfromthere.Hence,wefindthefollowingmetonymies:PLACEFORINHABITANTS:Thewholetownshowedupfor“thepeople”INHABITANTSFORPLACE:TheFrenchhostedtheWorldCupSoccerGamesfor“France”PLACEFORINSTITUTION:Cambridgewon’tpublishthebookfor“CambridgeUniversityPress”INSTITUTIONFORPLACE:IliveclosetotheUniversity.PLACEFOREVENT:Waterloofor“battlefoughtatWaterloo”EVENTFORPLACE:Battle,nameofthevillageinEastSussexwheretheBattleofHastingswasfought.(ix)SignandReferenceICMs.Theyleadtometonymiescross-cuttingontologicalrealms.Insignmetonymy,a(word-)formstandforaconventionallyassociatedconcept;inreferencemetonymies,asign,conceptor(word-)formstandsfortherealthing.WORDSFORTHECONCEPTSTHEYEXPRESS:aself-contradictoryutterance(x)ModificationICM.Itmainlyappliestovariantformsofasignapartfromreduction.SUBSTITUTEFORMFORORIGINALFORM:Doyoustillloveme?—Yes,Ido.6.3.6BlendingtheoryAlsoknownastheintegrationtheory,proposedbyGillesFauconnier&MarkTurner(1994,1995).Acognitiveoperationwherebyelementsoftwoormore“mentalspaces”areintegratedviaprojectionintoanew,blendedspacewhichhasitsuniquestructure.Blendingoperatesontwoinputmentalspacestoproduceathirdspace,theblend.Theblendinheritspartialstructurefromtheinputspacesandhasemergentstructureofitsown.TherearesomeconditionsneededwhentwoinputspacesI1andI2areblended:Cross-SpaceMapping:thereisapartialmappingofcounterpartsbetweentheinputspacesI1andI2.GenericSpace:Itmapsontoeachoftheinputs.Itreflectssomecommon,usuallymoreabstract,structureandorganizationsharedbytheinputs.Itdefinesthecorecross-spacemappingbetweenthem.Blend:theinputsI1andI2arepartiallyprojectedontoafourthspace,theblend.EmergentStructure:theblendhasemergentstructurenotprovidedbytheinputs.Thishappensinthreeinterrelatedways:Composition:Takentogether,theprojectionsfromtheinputsmakenewrelationsavailablethatdidnotexistintheseparateinputs.Completion:Knowledgeofbackgroundframes,cognitiveandculturalmodels,allowsthecompositestructureprojectedintotheblendfromtheinputstobeviewedaspartofalargerself-containedstructureintheblend.Elaboration:Thestructureintheblendcanthenbeelaborated.